Narayan Gopal

Narayan Gopal (Nepali: नारायण गोपाल गुरुवाचार्य) is by far the most prominent and popular singer in Nepali music. When people think or talk about Nepali music, the name most associated is that of Narayan Gopal. For most people, he is the singer. He was also an accomplished music composer in his own right. Not only was he gifted with a great voice, he was very versatile. His voice range allowed him to sing songs of every genre. His songs are often richly orchestrated with the sitar, harmonium and the flute. Some of his most popular songs include "Euta Manche Ko Maya le Kati)"(trans. For the Love of One Person), "Jhareko Paat Jhai"(Like a Fallen Leaf), "Yo Samjhine Man Cha"(This Heart remembers) and "Saawan ko jhari bani"(Like the Autumn Rain), "Manche ko Maya"(Love of person). Narayan Gopal has been accorded with title "Swar Samrat" (literally, King of Voice) which affirms his position as the supreme virtuoso of Nepali music. His death was due to organ failures, said to have been caused by his notorious drinking. The cassettes and CDs of his music still make significant sales in Nepal.
He has sung over 500 songs, including in films, ballets and drama. Most of his songs are melodies. It is said that he was very selective about which songs he sang. Although 500 songs is not a lot for some of his caliber, they are outstanding in some ways--be it the lyrical depth or superb rendition. In recognition of his contribution in the field of Nepali music, he has received several national honors and awards, Trishakti Patta, Chinnalata Puraskar to name a few.
Continued sales of his albums attest to his immense popularity. Even more than a decade after his death, his songs are equally liked, loved and sung.His legacy lives on. Current sensation, Ram Krishna Dhakal, a very popular singer, sang Narayan Gopal's songs and modelled his singing style after him when starting his career.
In a brief introduction of Narayan Gopal on an album cover, Music Nepal, the largest music company in Nepal, writes:
"The late Narayan Gopal (1996-2046 BS) is regarded as the most popular in the entire domain of modern Nepali music. A still more appropriate introduction of the music maestro would be to call him the King of Vocals or Swar Samrat of contemporary Nepali music. Narayan Gopal, who has enchanted millions of listeners by his immortal melodies has been awarded several national honors among which, Indra Rajya Laxmi Award, Chhinalata Award for vocals, Jagadamba Shree, Trishakti Patta third (awarded post humously) Urvashi Rang and several other honors and decorations bear testimony to his widespread popularity and the eminence he has achieved as a favorite singer of millions.
During his career, Narayan Gopal rendered his voice to over 550 compositions including modern songs, ballets, dance dramas, movies and patriotic songs. These songs have contributed in enriching the store of Nepali Music and popularizing Nepali music even beyond political frontiers."
Credit: Music Nepal

Personal life
Narayan Gopal was born to a Newar family in Kathmandu in 1996 Bikram Sambat (BS). His father was a classical musician and wanted his son to follow his footsteps. Narayan Gopal was interested in music from an early age but not exactly into classical field. He studied music in India.
The late Gopal Yonjon and Narayan Gopal were good friends and "mits".(It's a nepali custom where good friends enter into a kind of a lasting friendship. This is generally seen as strengthening the friendship bond.) Narayan Gopal has sung many beautiful and soulful songs composed by Gopal Yonjon.
Narayan Gopal married his long time fan from Darjeeling, Pemala Lama. They do not have any children.
Below is a translation (in part) of one of his most famous songs, "Kehi mitho baata gara" (Say a few sweet words), used with permission of Suckypoetssociety:
"come, let us dance in this dark- like fireflies
float with the wind- like fibres of simal
leave your sorrows for tomorrow
for, "tomorrow" is to be suffered anyhow
whisper sweet words to me—
dusk fades away in vain
later tonight, to solitude—
we return, to weep again"
He always wanted to have violin in his songs. The trust he left behind for teaching music to underprivelaged kids now teaches violon as well.

Songs
Album:Geeti Yatra Vol 1 (Released on 2044-10-10)-Yeuta manchheko-Malai chhodi mero chhaya-Saunko jhari bani-Yetidherai maya diee-Aajabholi harek sanjha-Kehi mitho batagara-Timilai maa ke bhanu-Yo samjhine maan chha
Geeti Shradanjali (Released on 2049-03-02)-Timile Pani-Joon Phool Rojhen-Yo Bhagyle Kasto-Sandhai Nai Ma Hanse-Nachhod Mera He-Sero Phero-Duita Phool Deuralima-Ishwor Tainle Rachera-Tyo Desh Bhitra Tyo Sano-Bihan Bhai Batasle-Aajai Yeuban-Shrada Ko Phool
Preyashi Ka Yaadharu (Released on 2054-02-16)-Euta Manchheko Maya-Yo Samjhene Man Chha-Yeti Dherai Maya Diee-Pokhiyera Ghamko Ghulka-Aankha Chhopi Narou-Biratako Chino-Preyasika Yaadharu-Mandirma Chhaki-Malai Chhodi Mero Chhayan-Parkhi Basen Aaulabhani-Saunko Jhari Bani-Aajabholi Harek Sanjha

Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal

The phrase Inner Terai Valleys or Bhitri tarai (भित्री तराइ) refers to various elongated valleys in Nepa lying between the Himalayan foothills, the 600-900 metre high Chure or Siwalak Range, and the 2,000-3,000 metre high Mahabharat Range further north. Major examples are the Chitwan Valley southwest of Kathman and the parallel Dang and Deukhuri Valleys in western Nepal. (Outer Terai refers to the plains extending south of the Chure / Siwalik Hills to the border with India.)
The valleys are low-lying, hot and humid, with swamps, grasslands and forests holding a rich variety of plant and animal life. A malaria eradication campaign in the 1950s and 1960s opened the Terai to settlement by migrants from the Tibetan highlands and the Indian plains. The new settlers have changed the local environment in ways that may threaten biodiversity and contribute to increasingly severe flooding downstream in India and Bangladesh. However, the valleys continue to be areas of great natural beauty, with rich ecosystems.

Geology

Geologic - Tectonic map of the Himalaya, modified after Le Fort (1988).
Main article: Geology of the Himalaya
The Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indian sub-continent with Eurasia, which began about 50 million years ago and continues today. The oceanic crust in front of India slid under Eurasia, pushing up the Tibetan plateau. The Indian continental crust is also pushing under Tibet, but is partly compressed and thrust upward to form the Himalayan mountain range, extending for over 2400 km and rising as high as 8848 m at Mt. Everest Chomolangma.
The Himalayas have four tectonic subdivisions:
The Indus Suture Zone, where the Indian Plate meets the Eurasian Transhimalaya or Karakoram-Lhasa Block.
The Central Himalayan Domain, the high backbone of the Himalayas.
The Lesser Himalaya or Mahabharat Lekh, a parallel but lower range mainly made up of more recent up-thrust surface rocks of the Indian subcontinent.
The Subhimalaya, also known as the Muree and Siwaliks Formations, the foothills of the Himalayan Range, mainly composed of folded and overlapping sheets of sediment from the erosion of the Himalaya.
The Inner Terai valleys lie between the Subhimalaya and Lesser Himalaya. They hold flat plains with winding rivers that shift course from time to time, running northwest or southeast along the folds until they find a break in the Sawaliks and flow into the Outer Terai and Gangetic plain. Usually there is little difference in elevation between the Inner Terai valley floors and the plains of the Outer Terai.

Climate & Economy

Nepal topography. The green/yellow zones hold the Inner Terai valleys.
Main article: Madhesh
The Terai has a humid, subtropical climate, warm in the winter and hot (often over 40°C) in the summer. The monsoon period of torrential rains lasts from mid-June to mid-September. Most areas in the Terai get over 1,500 mm of rain in a year. In the past, the inner and outer Terai were regions of malaria-infested marshes and forests, rich in animal and insect life. The Terai formed a formidable barrier between Nepal and potential invaders from India. The indigenous Tharu, Danuwar and others had a degree of inherited resistance to malaria and populated these areas.
A successful malaria eradication campaign in the 1950s and 1960s opened the area for settlement. People migrated to the Terai from the mountains and from neighbouring India. Today more than half the population are migrants, and many towns have developed. The Inner and Outer Tarai's have become Nepal's richest economic regions, with fertile farms and forests. The Tarai is Nepal's main source of food, and a migration destination for landless hill peasants. Tarai residents have more agricultural land than other Nepalese because of the area's generally flat terrain, which is drained and nourished by several rivers. As well, the Terai has the largest commercially exploitable forests.

Environmental Issues
The well-meaning malaria eradication campaign has had unexpected consequences by opening up the Terai region to human settlement. The Inner Terai valleys are home to a rich and diverse ecosystem. Since the early 1990s, however, the forests have been increasingly destroyed because of growing demands for timber and agricultural land[1][2] This has led to concerns about the risk of losing many rare plant[3][4], animal and insect species.
The valleys also play an important role in mitigating the severity of floods in the Gangetic plains. In times of heavy rainfall, the forests absorb the water. In times of heavy run-off from the Himalayan watershed, the rivers spread out from their banks, flooding the forest. Later, the forests gradually release the water into the rivers that feed the Ganges. Forest removal reduces or eliminates this buffering effect. It also accelerates soil erosion, causing downstream rivers to silt up and overflow their banks.[5]
In recent years, the frequency and severity of flooding in the Gangetic plain and Bangladesh has steadily increased. Deforestation of the Terai appears to be one of the major causes[6]. The Indian and Nepalese governments are cooperating in measures including construction of barrages and dams in the Terai, such as the Koshi Barrage[7]. However, these efforts may have mixed results. They contain floodwater in the short term, but may increase the problem in the longer term by reducing water velocity in the rivers downstream, and thus accelerating silting and reducing the drainage capacity of the rivers.[8]

Valleys
This section describes the major Inner Terai valleys. A picture is worth a thousand words. Click on the coordinates below each valley's heading, and select a satellite or terrain view to see vegetation, rivers and landforms.

Kamala Valley

Sagarmatha zone: Udayapur district in green
26°47′N 86°41′E / 26.783, 86.683 (Kamala Valley)
The Kamala Valley is in the Udayapur district in the southeast of Nepal (Sketch map). About 30 km long and between 2 km and 4 km wide, it is drained by the Triyuga river, which runs east to feed the great Koshi River. The valley lies between the Mahabharat Lekh (Range) to the north and the Churia or Sivalik Hills to the south, with an average elevation of about 430 meters[9].
The mouth of the valley opens onto a 175 sq. km. rectangle of land where the Triyuga meets the Koshi river above the Koshi Barrage. It was designated the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve[10] in 1976, and is home to the last remaining population of Wild Asian Water Buffalo in Nepal. The reserve is mostly wetlands, subject to seasonal flooding, but also includes some grasslands and small patches of riverine forest. It is the only Ramsar Site (a wetland of international significance) in Nepal.
Traditionally, the Kamala valley was primarily inhabited by the Dhanwar or Danuwar people[11], but there is a fast-growing population of migrants from the Nepali hills and from India. The main center is Gaighat (or Triyuga).

Marin Khola Valley

Janakpur zone: Sindhuli district is green band in center
27°13′11″N 85°55′12″E / 27.21972, 85.92 (Marin Khola Valley)
The Marin Khola Valley is one of the smaller Inner Terai Valleys, in the central south region, Sindhulī Garhi district\. (Sketch Map\) The Kokhajor Khola, the Marin Khola and the Kyan Khola rivers join in the valley to form the Kamala river, a major tributary to the Bhurengi[12]..
The main town is Kamalamai\.
The Indian government is concerned about flooding from the Kamala river, and is funding engineering projects in an attempt to control the situation.
The Marin Khola valley is one of the areas of Nepal inhabited by Hayu people, who also live in the valleys of the Rosi Khola and the Sun Kosi north of the Mahabharat range.[13]

Chitwan Valley

Natayani zone: the Chitwan district is yellow area to the west
Main article: Chitwan Valley
27°41′N 84°26′E / 27.683, 84.433 (Chitwan Valley)
The Chitwan Valley is in central Nepal in the Narayani Zone. It is 150 km long and roughly 30-48 km wide, the largest of the inner Terai valleys. (Sketch Map) The cities of Bharatpur, Hetauda, and Ratnanagar are in the valley.
The Narayni and East Rapti rivers join in the valley. The Naryani is the main river and life line of the Chitwan Valley, flowing from the Himalayan Glaciers with tributaries Kaligandaki, Trishuli, Seti, Madi, Marshangdi, Budhi Gandaki and Draudi. The Naryani is also known as the Gandaki River in India. The Rapti river flows from the Mahabharat Lekh (range) and enters the Chitwan valley from Hetuda, joining the Naryani west of the Meghauli.
The Chitwan National Park[14] is one of the most important sub-tropical parks on the Indian subcontinent with good populations of the endangered Bengal tiger, great one-horned rhinos, gangetic dolphin, wild Asian elephant, gaur, golden monitor lizard and gharial crocodile. In 1963 the southern two-thirds of the park were declared a Rhino Sanctuary, with a moratorium on hunting and the relocation of 22,000 people from the Chitwan valley. Since then, wildlife populations and ecosystems have been rebounding in this area. In 1973 Chitwan became Nepal’s first National Park. The unique ecosystems prompted UNESCO to declare the park a World Heritage site in 1984.

Surkhet Valley

Bheri Zone districts. Surkhet is the purple band in the center
28°36′N 81°38′E / 28.6, 81.633 (Surkhet Valley)
The Surkhet Valley[15] is in the mid-west of Nepal, in the Surkhet district (Sketch map), with an average elevation of 700 meters above sea level. The valley is elliptically shaped, about 9 km east-west and 6 km north-south. It is drained by the Bheri River[16].
Birendranagar is the main population center in the valley. Historically, Birendranagar and the surrounding area of Surkhet were the lands of the Tharu and local Rajhi people. However the region has seen increased migration from the surrounding mountain regions as well as other parts of the country.

Deukhuri and Dang Valleys

Rapti zone: Dang Deokhuri district in south west
28°7′N 82°17′E / 28.117, 82.283 (Deukhuri and Dang Valleys)
The parallel Deukhuri and Dang Valleys are in the Rapti zone of mid-western Nepal, in the Dang Deokhuri district (Sketch map).
The larger Deukhuri Valley is drained by the West Rapti river, running to the north east[17]. Tulsipur is the main center in the Deukhuri valley.
To the south of Deukhari valley, separated by a range of hills, is the narrow Dang Valley. The Dang valley is drained by the Babai river[18], which also runs towards the north east. The city of Tribhuvannagar is in the center of the Dang valley. The Babai river breaks through the Chure Hills into the Royal Bardia National Park (Map). This park is the largest and most undisturbed wilderness area in the Terai. About 70% of the park is covered with forest with the balance a mixture of grassland, savannah and riverine forest.

Jogbudha Valley

Mahakali zone: Dadeldhura district is the yellow area towards the south
29°10′N 80°20′E / 29.167, 80.333 (Jogbudha Valley)
The Jogbudha Valley is in the far west of Nepal, in the Dadeldhura district of the Mahakali zone (Sketch map). The rivers of this relatively small and largely undeveloped valley empty into the Mahakali or Sarda River, which flows from the Greater Himalayas and defines part of the western border of Nepal with Uttarakhand, India.
To the south of this valley, in the Outer Terai, is the Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve[19], home of the largest herd of swamp deer in the world, and listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1984.

Dharan, Nepal

Dharan (Nepali: धरान) is a major city in eastern Nepal, in the Sunsari District, situated on foothills of Himalayas with southern tip touching the edge of the Terai at an altitude of 1148 ft (349m). It serves as a trading post between the hilly region and the plains of Terai region. It was once the location of a British Gurkha recruitment center, opened in 1953. The recruitment center is closed and the campus is now the home of B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences since 1993.

History
Dharan's history can be traced back to 1584 A.D. to the Kingdom to Limbuwan,which was also known as Pallo Kirat Pardesh (a collective of ten Limbu Kingdoms). Dharan-Bijaypur was the capital city of the Morang. This was prior to conquest and annexation of the Limbuwan by Gorkha King, King Prithivi Narayan Shah. Dharan was known as Bijaypur until the 1950s when the settlement grew on the southern portion of Bijaypur and took its own name of Dharan. History of Limbuwan shows that Dharan/Bijaypur was an important town.
The indigenous people of Dharan are Limbu and Rai, collectively known as Kiranti. Dharan started as a small trading settlement of Chaubis or Miklung Kingdom of Limbuwan ( one of the ten Kingdoms of Limbuwan ). Over the last couple of decades, the population of Dharan has increased and diversified to include people from various ethnicity like Gurungs, Newar, Bahuns(hill Brahmin), Chhetris etc.
The modern Dharan's foundation was laid in 1902 A.D by prime minister Chandra Samsher. He established a small village at the foot of Vijayapur hillock and named it Chandranagar (now Purano Bajar). The purpose was to supply timber to East India Company, who in 1890's had expanded it's North Eastern territory and was laying railway tracks. The first government official to be appointed in this small village of Chandranagar was Subba Ratna Prasad. A settlement grew steadily over the course of time. This growing settlement was named Juddha Nagar (now Naya Bazaar) after Prime minister Juddha Samsher. In 1960 Dharan was recognized as a 'municipal town'.
This transformation of Dharan was triggered by the establishment of the British Gurkha (GORKHA) recruitment center in 1953. Recruits from all over Nepal flocked to join British Gurkha thereby drastically altering the face of Dharan. There was a surge in population with recruits bringing their families, and others who came to seek employment and exploit business opportunities. As a result, Dharan has emerged as one of the biggest town in eastern Nepal. It is in true sense a melting pot of different ethnic groups, languages, dialects and religions.
In 1962, Nepal was divided into 14 administrative zones and 75 districts and Dharan was made the zonal headquarters of Kosi Zone. Initially, the town was divided into eleven wards, but in 1980 Banjjhogara Gaon Panchayat at the east (which is now the most developed area of Dharan) and Ghopa Gaon Panchayat at the west were added to Dharan Town Panchayat. This expansion led to the reformation of the wards. Now Dharan is divided into nineteen wards.

Etymology
The name of the city originates from "Dharan", which literally means a place where you saw timber. A typical Dharan is constructed by digging a rectangular plot about 5 to 6 feet deep. This hole is large and deep enough for an adult to comfortably move about. A platform is constructed to cover half the hole. A timber is placed on this platform and two man team, one standing on the platform and the other in the dug out proceed to saw timber with a huge saw blade. This is very labor intensive and dangerous process.

Culture

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One area of difference between Limbus and Brahmans is Religious. Limbus recognize and participate in many popular Hindu festivals but also have a number of their own practitioners. They worship by means of blood sacrifice. They believe that lineage divinities are not transmitted patrilineally.
Rather, a woman inherits her mother's gods and when she marries and lives with her husband, she brings with her the deities that will then be recognized as the gods of the Household. Every time a bad thing or feeling is caused by the man, he will have to be washed clean of it. There are also forest deities that inhabit the area and have nothing to do with women. Limbu bury their dead and observe two to three days of pollution; the length of the period depends on whether the deceased is a female or a male, respectively.
Drinking and dancing are very important to the Limbus. Weddings, mourning, gift exchanges, and settlement of conflicts involve much consumption of liquor, especially beer. Dancing parties are given for visitors to the village. These affairs give the young Limbu girls and boys a chance to meet and enjoy dancing and drinking.
Yakthung Limbu Culture is so rich both in terms of its developmental aspects, its meaning and valule. Yakthung Paan Limbu language is one of the most primitive language all over the world. Only the reason to prove that is about its Mundhum the holy scripture based on oral traditions that Yakthungs do know as insight book or Sik Sapla. It always starts from its nought point i.e. before the creation of the universe and the Earth. Language is so unique and great that we can prove from its highly developed form of linguistic richness. It reaches to the bottom of the feelings and height of the feelings. It is also regarded as a science because it always advocates how artistically and logically the Universe, the Earth was made by Porokmiba Yambhamiba seems like a particular scientist like albert einstein and some other physisists.

Tourism
Dharan is a tourist destination in its own right. It is well quipped to cater to any tourist's needs with its good transport system, hotels, hospitals, banks, travel agencies, shopping centers, restaurants, cafes, Internet/phone cafes, movie theaters, sporting stadium, all year around events and sites of interests. Local people are very genial and friendly. Communication is mainly in Nepali and English speakers should have no problem.
Dharan tends to get a bit hot during summer. This is a perfect opportunity to escape to the cooler hill station of Bhedetar, an hour drive/ride from Dharan. Bhedetar with its plethora of restaurants and watering holes is ideal for a quick jaunt. After a meal you can burn the calories by climbing the summit of Charles Point, aptly named after Prince Charles of England who climbed this hill in Date needed. You do not require mountaineering experience, gears or porters to reach the summit. Just good pair of legs will suffice. It offers the most magnificent panoramic view of Dharan and Tarai.
Beyond Bhedetar lies the eastern hilly district such as Dhankuta, Bhojpur, Terathum. Dharan serves as a gateway to some of the remote tourist attractions like Kumbhakarna Himal, Kanchenjunga, Makalu-Varun National Park, Arun Valley, Tinjure-Milke (Rhododendron Protection Area), Gupha Lake, Hyatrung Fall, and Sabha Pokhari. They are a bit further and therefore require extended day trips.
To the south of Dharan is the city of Biratnagar and connecting towns, all within an hours drive. The towns of Tararah and Ithari are popular with the local population of Dharan.
Dharan with its diverse population has numerous centers of worship i.e. temples, churches and a mosque. Vijayapur hill is of a particular significance, as it has several temples of importance, such as Dantakali temple, Pindeshwar temple, Budha Subbha temple and Panch Kanya. These temples are of historical and archaeological importance in as much as religious. These temples are centers for rituals, fares and events.
Different ethnic groups host their traditional cultural festivities all year around. The Lakhe naach and Gai jatra of Newars, Dhan naach of Limbus, Chandi naach of Rai people, Selo of Tamangs, Rodighar of Gurungs, Baalan and Sangini of Brahmin and Chhetris, all add to the rich cultural tradition of Dharan.
Other potential tourism prospects include:
White water rafting in Kosi river, starting from Chatara to Kosi Barrage.
Paragliding from surrounding hills and Bhedetar for the dare-devils.
Development of Panchakanya, a Natural Park into a mini zoo.
Archeological dig at the ruins of the palaces of the Kirat Limbu kings at the heart of the Panchakanya jungle.History of Limbuwan
Protection and development of flora and fauna of Chaarkose forest.
Cable car at Dharan-Bishnupaduka-Baraha Kshetra.
Better advertisement of Babadham fair.
Construction of an airport in Dharan.
Some measures taken by the Municipality of Dharan to promote tourism:
Emphasis on the development infrastructures of the city.
Support development and management of Pindeshwar Babadham fair, Baraha Kshetra fair and Bishnupaduka fair to promote religious tourism.
Budhasubba Football Tournaments coordinated by the municipality every year.
Annual publication of a brochure and city information of Dharan.
Publication and distribution of postcards and photographs of Dharan and Bhedetar.
Promote Dharan festivals. E.g. Dharan Mahotsav.
Dharan Clock Tower.
Development of the Saptarangi Park (Park of Seven Colours) and Panchakanya Natural Park.
Financial and other assistance to the development of a privately run Yalambar Park.

Geography
Surrounded by hills at three directions, Charkose jhadi (Forest) at the south, flanked by two rivers to the east and west (Seuti river and Shardhu river).
Temperate climate.
Great change of altitude at a short distance (305 m. to 700m. at a short distance of 4 km.)
Sloped terrain.
Mid-point between Hills and the Terai plains (Bhawar region), and a gateway to the hills.

Media

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Residents of Dharan can receive two broadcast television stations (Dharan cable and Space), one of which broadcast from within Dharan. One daily newspaper, the THe Blast, and several monthly neighborhood papers serve the city. There are 11 local newspapers. Bijaypur FM is home to Dharan Public Radio, a three-format system that broadcasts around Eastern region. Locally delivers news and information, classical, and The Current (which plays a wide variety of music). There is three ISP (internet service Provider).

Transport
There is a good transport network bus connecting Dharan to all major cities and local towns. The local transport consists of cars, auto-rickshaws and rickshaws. Sharing a ride with other passengers is the mode of transport and most economical. Walking is a healthier and heartier way to get about town.

Education

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Dharan is one of those towns in Nepal where the number of higher education institutions per capita is higher than the rest. Dharan boasts of five private colleges and one public university, with more than 40 public and private secondary schools. Well-known colleges and universities include: BPKIHS( B.P Koirala Institute of health and science, Hattisar Campus (TU, Food Technology), Purwanchal Campus (TU, Agriculture Engineering, Overseer). It also has 9 private and 1 public library and 3 special education centre. It has more than 5 technical school affiliated to CTVT.

Statistics
It is one of the largest city of Nepal.
Land area: 12.23 km²
Population: 95,332 (census 2001), of which male 55.514%, female 44.486%, 2007 approx. 118,000

Civic Administration
Zone: Koshi
District: Sunsari
Number of Wards: 19

Gautama Buddha

Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from ancient India and the founder of Buddhism.[1] He is generally recognized by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha (Sammāsambuddha) of our age. The time of his birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians date his lifetime from c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE; more recently, however, at a specialist symposium on this question,[2] the majority of those scholars who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death, with others supporting earlier or later dates.

Life

Maya Devi Temple in Lumbini, Nepal.
The prime sources of information regarding Siddhārtha Gautama's life are the Buddhist texts. The Buddha and his monks spent four months each year discussing and rehearsing his teachings, and after his death his monks set about preserving them. A council was held shortly after his death, and another was held a century later. At these councils the monks attempted to establish and authenticate the extant accounts of the life and teachings of the Buddha following systematic rules. They divided the teachings into distinct but overlapping bodies of material, and assigned specific monks to preserve each one. From then on, the teachings were transmitted orally. From internal evidence it seems clear that the oldest texts crystallized into their current form by the time of the second council or shortly after it. The scriptures were not written down until three or four hundred years after the Buddha's death. By this point, the monks had added or altered some material themselves, in particular magnifying the figure of the Buddha.[4]
The ancient Indians were not concerned with chronologies, being far more focused on philosophy. The Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, and we have a much clearer picture of what the Buddha thought than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Ja scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which substantial accounts exist.[5] According to Michael Carrithers, there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, though the outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[6]

Conception and birth
According to tradition, Siddhārtha was born more than 200 years before the reign of the Maurya king Aśoka (273–232 BCE).Siddhartha was born in Lumbini[7] and raised in the small kingdom or principality of Kapilvastu, both of which are in modern day Nepal. Culturally, these can be considered part of the broader region of Ancient India.[8] His father was King Suddhoda, the chief of the Shakya nation, one of several ancient tribes in the growing state of Kosala; Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. On the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side[9], and ten lunar months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, she gave birth on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.
The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[10] Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhatta), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man. This occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodarna held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kaundinya (Pali: Kondanna), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant, was the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[11]
While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars believe that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

Early life and marriage
Siddhartha, destined to a luxurious life as a prince, had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) especially built for him. His father, King Śuddhodana, wishing for Siddhartha to be a great king, shielded his son from religious teachings or knowledge of human suffering. Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[12]
As the boy reached the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā), a cousin of the same age. Though this is the traditional account, an early source casts doubt as to the historicity of his married life.[13] According to the traditional account, in time, she gave birth to a son, Rahula. Siddhartha spent 29 years as a Prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Siddhartha felt that material wealth was not the ultimate goal of life.[12]

The Great Departure

The Great Departure. Gandhara, 2nd century CE.
At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace in order to meet his subjects. Despite his father's effort to remove the sick, aged and suffering from the public view, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. Disturbed by this, when told that all people would eventually grow old by his charioteer Channa, the prince went on further trips where he encountered, variously, a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. Deeply depressed by these sights, he sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.
Siddhartha escaped his palace, accompanied by Channa aboard his horse Kanthaka, leaving behind this royal life to become a mendicant. It is said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods"[14] to prevent guards from knowing the Bodhisatta's departure. This event is known as "The Great Departure".
Siddhartha initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. Having been recognised by the men of King Bimbisara, Bimbisara offered him the throne after hearing of Siddhartha's quest. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.
Siddhartha left Rajagaha and practiced under two hermit teachers. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama, Siddhartha was asked by Kalama to succeed him, but moved on after being unsatisfied with his practices. He then became a student of Udaka Ramaputta, but although he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness and was asked to succeed Ramaputta, he was still not satisfied with his path, and moved on.[15]

The Buddha as an ascetic. Gandhara, 2-3rd century CE. British Museum.
Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kondanna then set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through near total deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practicing self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhana.

The Great Enlightenment

Prince Siddhartha. Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century. Musée Guimet, Paris.
After asceticism and concentrating on meditation and Anapana-sati (awareness of breathing in and out), Siddhartha is said to have discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. He accepted a little milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata, who wrongly believed him to be the spirit that had granted her a wish, such was his emaciated appearance. Then, sitting under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. Kaundinya and the other four companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After 49 days meditating, at the age of 35, he attained Enlightenment; according to some traditions, this occurred approximately in the fifth lunar month, and according to others in the twelfth. Gautama, from then on, was known as the Buddha or "Awakened One." Buddha is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One." Often, he is referred to in Buddhism as Shakyamuni Buddha or "The Awakened One of the Shakya Clan."
At this point, he realized complete awakening and insight into the nature and cause of human suffering which was ignorance, along with steps necessary to eliminate it. These truths were then categorized into the Four Noble Truths; the state of supreme liberation—possible for any being—was called Nirvana. He then came to possess the Nine Characteristics, which are said to belong to every Buddha.
According to one of the stories in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1), a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons, immediately after his Enlightenment, the Buddha was wondering whether or not he should teach the Dharma to human beings. He was concerned that, as human beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion, they would not be able to see the true dharma, which was subtle, deep and hard to understand. However, a divine spirit, Brahm Sahampati, interceded and asked that he teach the dharma to the world, as "there will be those who will understand the Dharma". With his great compassion to all beings in the universe, the Buddha agreed to become a teacher.

Formation of the sangha

Painting of the first sermon depicted at Wat Chedi Liem in Thailand.
After becoming enlightened, two merchants whom the Buddha met, named Tapussa and Bhallika became the first lay disciples. They are given some hairs from the Buddha's head, which are believed to now be enshrined in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta to explain his findings, but they had already died.
The Buddha thus journeyed to Deer Park near Vārāṇasī (Benares) in northern India, he set in motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha, formed the first saṅgha, the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first formation of Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) was completed, with Kaundinya becoming the first stream-enterer. All five soon become arahants, and with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of arahants swelled to 60 within the first two months. The conversion of the three Kassapa brothers and their 200, 300 and 500 disciples swelled the sangha over 1000, and they were dispatched to explain the dharma to the populace.
It is unknown what language the Buddha spoke, and no conclusive documentation has been made at this point. However, some modern scholars, primarily philologists, believe it is most likely that the Buddha spoke a vulgate then current in eastern India, Mâgadhî Prakrit.

Ministry

Gautama Buddha with his protector Vajrapani (here holding a flywisk). Gandhara, 2nd century CE.
For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people— from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, mass murderers such as Angulimala and cannibals such as Alavaka. This extended to many adherents of rival philosophies and religions. The Buddha founded the community of Buddhist monks and nuns (the Sangha) to continue the dispensation after his Parinirvāna (Pāli: Parinibbāna) or "complete Nirvāna", and made thousands of converts. His religion was open to all races and classes and had no ca structure. He was also subject to attack from opposition religious groups, including attempted murders and framings.

A Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD) Chinese silk landscape painting depicting the young Sakyamuni shaving his head. This is one of the earliest visual presentations of the Gautama Buddha in the history of painting
The sangha travelled from place to place in India, expounding the dharma. This occurred throughout the year, except during the four months of the vassana rainy season. Due to the heavy amount of flooding, travelling was difficult, and ascetics of all religions in that time did not travel, since it was more difficult to do so without stepping on submerged animal life, unwittingly killing them. During this period, the sangha would retreat to a monastery, public park or a forest and people would come to them.
The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was first formed. After this, he travelled to Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha to visit King Bimbisara, in accordance with his promise after enlightenment. It was during this visit that Sariputta and Mahamoggallana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples; they were to become the Buddha's two foremost disciples. The Buddha then spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha. The monastery, which was of a moderate distance from the city centre was donated by Bimbisara.
Upon hearing of the enlightenment, Suddhodana dispatched royal delegations to ask the Buddha to return to Kapilavastu. Nine delegations were sent in all, but the delegates joined the sangha and became arahants. Neglecting worldly matters, they did not convey their message. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend, resulted in the message being successfully conveyed as well as becoming an arahant. Since it was not the vassana, the Buddha agreed, and two years after his enlightenment, took a two month journey to Kapilavastu by foot, preaching the dharma along the way. Upon his return, the royal palace had prepared the midday meal, but since no specific invitation had come, the sangha went for an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana hastened to approach the Buddha, stating "Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms", to which the Buddha replied
“
That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms
”
Suddhodana invited the sangha back to the royal palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk, after which he became a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. His cousins Ananda and Anuruddha were to become two of his five chief disciples. His son Rahula also joined the sangha at the age of seven, and was one of the ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nan also joined the sangha and became an arahant. Another cousin Devadatta also became a monk although he later became an enemy and tried to kill the Buddha on multiple occasions.
Of his disciples, Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha comprised the five chief disciples. His ten foremost disciples were completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.
In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali. Hearing of the impending death of Suddhodana, the Buddha went to his father and preached the dharma, and Suddhodana became an arahant prior to death. The death and cremation led to the creation of the order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that he was reluctant to ordain women as nuns. His foster mother Maha Pajapati approached him asking to join the sangha, but the Buddha refused, and began the journey from Kapilavastu back to Rajagaha. Maha Pajapati was so intent on renouncing the world that she lead a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, following the sangha to Rajagaha. The Buddha eventually accepted them five years after the formation of the Sangha on the grounds that their capacity for enlightenment was equal to that of men, but he gave them certain additional rules (Vinaya) to follow. This occurred after Ananda interceded on their behalf. Yasodhara also became a nun, with both becoming arahants.
During his ministry, Devadatta (who was not an arahant) frequently tried to undermine the Buddha. At one point Devadatta asked the Buddha to stand aside to let him lead the sangha. The Buddha declined, and stated that Devadatta's actions did not reflect on the Triple Gem, but on him alone. Devadatta conspired with Prince Ajatasattu, son of Bimbisara, so that they would kill and usurp the Buddha and Bimbisara respectively. Devadatta attempted three times to kill the Buddha. The first attempt involved the hiring of a group of archers, whom upon meeting the Buddha became disciples. A second attempt followed when Devadatta attempted to roll a large boulder down a hill. It hit another rock and splintered, only grazing the Buddha in the foot. A final attempt by plying an elephant with alcohol and setting it loose again failed. Failing this, Devadatta attempted to cause a schism in the sangha, by proposing extra restrictions on the vinaya. When the Buddha declined, Devadatta started a breakaway order, criticising the Buddha's laxity. At first, he managed to convert some of the bhikkhus, but Sariputta and Mahamoggallana expounded the dharma to them and succeeded in winning them back.
When the Buddha reached the age of 55, he made Ananda his chief attendant.

The Great Passing

Buddha's entry into Parinirvana.
According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana or the final deathless state abandoning the earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which, according to different translations,especially the religious texts knowledge of Heenyan texts was pork, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.
The Mahayana Vimalakirti Sutra explains, in Chapter 3, that the Buddha doesn't really become ill or old but purposely presents such an appearance only to teach those born during the five defilements the impermanence and pain of defiled worlds and to strive for Nirvana.
"'Reverend Ánanda, the Tathágatas have the body of the Dharma - not a body that is sustained by material food. The Tathágatas have a transcendental body that has transcended all mundane qualities. There is no injury to the body of a Tathágata, as it is rid of all defilements. The body of a Tathágata is uncompounded and free of all formative activity. Reverend Ánanda, to believe there can be illness in such a body is irrational and unseemly!' Nevertheless, since the Buddha has appeared during the time of the five corruptions, he disciplines living beings by acting lowly and humble."[14]
Ananda protested Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (Pāli: Kusināra) of the Mallas. Buddha, however, reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy:
“
44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds -- the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"
”

The sharing of the relics of the Buddha.
Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikshus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. He then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words were, "All composite things pass away. Strive for your own liberation with diligence." The Buddha's body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.
According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of Buddha. According to one Mahayana record in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Aśoka is 116 years after the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 543 BCE, because the reign of Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates.
At his death, the Buddha told his disciples to follow no leader, but to follow his teachings (dharma). However, at the First Buddhist Council, Mahakasyapa was held by the sangha as their leader, with the two chief disciples Mahamoggallana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.

Physical characteristics
Main article: Physical characteristics of the Buddha

Gandhara Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE, Musée Guimet.
Buddha is perhaps one of the few sages for whom we have mention of his rather impressive physical characteristics. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great M".
The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive."(D,I:115).
"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A,I:181)
A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an Arahant, was so obsessed by Buddha's physical presence that Buddha has to tell him to stop and reminded Vakkali to know Buddha through the Dhamma and not physical appearances.
Although the Buddha was not represented in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), the physical characteristics of fully-enlightened Buddhas are described by the Buddha in the Digha Nikayas Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D,I:142).[16] In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").[17]

Teachings
Main article: Buddhist philosophy

Seated Buddha, Gandhara, 2nd century CE.
Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pali Canon and the Agamas could contain the actual substance of the historical teachings (and possibly even the words) of the Buddha.[18][19 This is not the case for the later Mahayana sutras.[20] The scriptural works of Early Buddhism precede the Mahayana works chronologically, and are treated by many Western scholars as the main credible source for information regarding the actual historical teachings of Gautama Buddha.
Some of the fundamentals of the teachings of Gautama Buddha are:
The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an inherent part of existence; that the origin of suffering is ignorance and the main symptoms of that ignorance are attachment and craving; that attachment and craving can be ceased; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path will lead to the cessation of attachment and craving and therefore suffering.
The Noble Eightfold Path: right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
Dependent origination: that any phenomenon 'exists' only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect covering time past, present and future. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient (anicca), they have no real independent identity (anatta).
Rejection of the infallibility of accepted scripture: Teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experience and are praised by the wise. See the Kalama Sutta for details.
Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things are impermanent.
Anatta (Sanskrit: anātman): That the perception of a constant "self" is an illusion.
Dukkha (Sanskrit: duḥkha): That all beings suffer from all situations due to unclear mind.
However, in some Mahayana schools, these points have come to be regarded as more or less subsidiary. There is some disagreement amongst various schools of Buddhism over more esoteric aspects of Buddha's teachings, and also over some of the disciplinary rule for monks.
According to tradition, the Buddha emphasized ethics and correct understanding. He questioned the average person's notions of divinity and salvation. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the divine distant gods are subjected to karma themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is solely a guide and teacher for the sentient beings who must tread the path of Nirvāṇa (Pāli: Nibbāna) themselves to attain the spiritual awakening called bodhi and see truth and reality as it is. The Buddhist system of insight and meditation practice is not believed to have been revealed divinely, but by the understanding of the true nature of the mind, which must be discovered by personally treading a spiritual path guided by the Buddha's teachings.

Mahabharat Lekh

The Mahabharat Lekh or Range is a major east-west mountain range generally 1,500 to 3,000 meters high across Nepal. East of Nepal it extends through Sikkim and Bhutan but is difficult to differentiate from other Himalayan ranges in India's Arunachal Pradesh. West of Nepal the range extends across northern India to the Indus River in Pakistan. The Mahabharat Range is also called the 'Lesser Himalaya' and Lower Himalayan Range. It parallels the much higher Himalaya range which lies about 100 kilometers to the north, and the lower Siwalik or Churia Range (Outer Himalaya) to the south.
Southern slopes of the Mahabharat Range are steep and nearly uninhabited due to a major fault system called the 'Main Boundary Thrust". The crest and northern slopes slope gently enough to support upland pastures and terraced fields. Nepal's densely populated Middle Hills begin along the crest, extending north through lower valleys and other "hills" until elevations rise above 3,000 meters and cereal-based agriculture gives way to seasonal herding and limited cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes.
Most ethnic groups found along the Mahabharat Range and northward into the Middle Hills have Tibeto-Burman affinities including Newar, Magar, Gurung, Tamang, Rai and Limbu, however the most numerous ethnic group is indo-european Hindus called Paharis, mainly of the upper Brahman and Kshatriya or Chhetri castes. Lower terrain south of the escarpment was historically malarial and inhabited by apparently aboriginal peoples with evolved immunity, notably the Tharu.
The Mahabharat Range is an important hydrographic barrier crossed by relatively few rivers. Drainage systems have evolved candelabra configurations with numerous tributaries flowing south from the Himalaya through the Middle Hills, gathering immediately north of the Mahabharat Range and cutting through in major gorges as the Karnali in the west, the Gandaki or Narayani in central Nepal, and the Kosi in the east.
With temperatures persisting around forty degrees celsius in the plains of India from April until the onset of the summer monsoon in June, but ten to fifteen degrees cooler atop the Mahabharat Range, dozens of Hill Stations were developed as alternate capitals and resorts for the hot season by India's Mughal and British rulers. There were no hill stations per se in Nepal, Sikkim or Bhutan since the capital cities were already high enough to avoid extreme heat.

Geography of Nepal

Sandwiched between two Asian giants--China and India--Nepal traditionally has been characterized as "a yam caught between two rocks." Noted for its majestic Himalayas, which in Sanskrit means the abode of snow, Nepal is very mountainous and hilly. Its shape is roughly rectangular, about 800 kilometers long and about 100 to 200 kilometers wide, and comprises a total of 147,181 square kilometers of land. It is slightly larger than Bangladesh or the state of Arkansas. Nepal is a landlocked country, surrounded by India on three sides and by China's Xizang Autonomous Region (Tibet) to the north. It is separated from Bangladesh by an approximately 15 kilometer wide strip of India's state of West Bengal, and from Bhutan by the 88 kilometer wide Sikkim, also an Indian state. Such a confined geographical position is hardly enviable. Nepal is almost totally dependent on India for transit facilities and access to the sea--that is, the Bay of Bengal--even for most of the goods coming from China.

The Land
For a small country, Nepal has great physical diversity, ranging from the Tarai Plain -- the northern rim of the Gangetic Plain situated at about 60 meters above sea level in the south -- to the 8850-meter-high Mount Everest, locally known as Sagarmatha (its Nepali name), in the north. From the lowland Tarai belt, landforms rise in successive hill and mountain ranges, including the stupendous rampart of the towering Himalayas, ultimately reaching the Tibetan Plateau beyond the Inner Himalayas. This rise in elevation is punctuated by valleys situated between mountain ranges. Within this maze of mountains, hills, ridges, and low valleys, elevational (altitudinal) changes resulted in ecological variations.
Nepal commonly is divided into three broad physiographic areas: the Mountain Region, the Hill Region, and the Tarai Region. All three parallel each other, from east to west, as continuous ecological belts, occasionally bisected by the country's river systems. These ecological regions were divided by the government into development sectors within the framework of regional development planning.
The rhythm of life in Nepal, as in most other parts of monsoonal Asia, is intricately yet intrinsically intertwined with its physical environment. As scholar Barry Bishop learned from his field research in the Karnali region in the northwest, the livelihood patterns of Nepal are inseparable from the environment.

The Mountain Region

Perspective view of the Himalaya and Mount Everest as seen from space looking south-south-east from over the Tibetan Plateau. (annotated version)
The Mountain Region (Parbat in Nepali) rises immediately north of the hill region and at higher elevations, beginning on the immediate outskirts of the main Himalaya where ridges (lekh) begin reaching the treeless alpine zone above 3,500 to 4,000 meters elevation, continuing up into the zone of perpetual snow above 5,000 to 5,500 meters. There are about 90 peaks in Nepal over 7,000 meters (22,965') and eight giants exceeding 8,000 meters (26,246'), including earth's highest, Mount Everest at 8,848 meters and third highest, Kanchenjunga at 8,598 meters.
Cutting between the various subranges of the Himalaya and north of them are alpine, often semi-arid valleys including Humla, Jumla, Mustang, Manang District and Kumbu that are lightly populated by people with Tibetan affinities called Bhotiya or Bhutia, the famous Sherpas in the Kumbu valley near Mount Everest. Bhote traditionally grazed yaks, grew cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes, barley and millet, and traded across the mountains, e.g. Tibetan salt for rice from lowlands in Nepal and India. Since the 1950s these mountain peoples have also found work as high altitude porters, guides, cooks and other accessories to tourism and alpinism.
Bhote language and culture extend north into Tibet proper, with the international border following the Himalayan crest in eastern Nepal. In central and western Nepal the border mostly follows lower (~6,000 meter) ranges tens of kilometers north of the highest peaks, the watershed between the Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins.

The Hill Region
Situated south of the Mountain Region, the Hill Region (called Pahar in Nepali) is mostly between 1,000 and 4,000 meters in altitude. It includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanized area. Two major ranges of hills, commonly known as the Mahabharat Lekh and Siwalik Range (or Churia Range), occupy the region. In addition, there are several intermontane valleys. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural center of Nepal, with decision-making power centralized in Kathmandu, the nation's capital. Because of immigration from Tibet and India, the hill ranges historically have been the most heavily populated area. Despite heavy out-migration, the Hill Region comprised the largest share of the total population in 1991.
Although the higher elevations (above 2,500 meters) in the region are sparsely populated because of physiographic and climatic difficulties, the lower hills and valleys are densely settled. The hill landscape is both a natural and cultural mosaic, shaped by geological forces and human activity. The hills, sculpted by human hands into a massive complex of terraces, are extensively cultivated.
Like the Mountain Region, the Hill Region was a food-deficit area in the early 1990s, although agriculture was the predominant economic activity supplemented by livestock raising, foraging, and seasonal migrating of laborers. The vast majority of the households living in the hills were land-hungry and owned largely pakho (hilly) land. The poor economic situation caused by lack of sufficient land was aggravated by the relatively short growing season, a phenomenon directly attributable to the climatic impact of the region's higher altitude. As a result, a hill farmer's ability to grow multiple crops was limited. The families were forced to adapt to the marginality, as well as the seasonality, of their environment, cultivating their land whenever they could and growing whatever would survive. Bishop has noted that "as crop productivity decreases with elevation, the importance of livestock in livelihood pursuits . . . increases. For many Bhotia [or Bhote] living in the highlands . . . animal husbandry supplants agriculture in importance." During the slack season, when the weather did not permit cropping, hill dwellers generally became seasonal migrants, who engaged in wage labor wherever they could find it to supplement their meager farm output. Dependence on nonagricultural activities was even more necessary in the mountain ecological belt.

The Terai Region
The Terai or Madhesh region begins at the Indian border and includes the northermost part of the Gangeatic Plain. These flat, intensively farmed plains are culturally an extension of northern India with Hindi, Awadhi,Bhojpuri and Maithili spoken more than Nepali.
Traversing these plains north toward the outermost range of foothills called the Siwaliks, there is a forested alluvial belt along the base, marshy with springs fed by groundwater percolating down from higher elevations. Before the use of DDT this zone was heavily infested with malaria. Nepal's rulers used it as a defensive frontier called the char kose jhadi (twelve kilometer forest).
Beyond the alluvial belt, the Siwaliks rise as high as 1,000 meters, steepest on their southern slopes because of faults. This range is made of poorly consolidated, coarse sediments that quickly absorb rainfall and are unsuited to agriculture, so there is very little population. However just north of the Siwaliks there are a number of "dun" valleys or the Inner Terai. Among these are Surkhet, Dang and Deukhuri in western Nepal and the Rapti Valley (Chitwan) in central Nepal. These valleys were also malarial and lightly populated until DDT was used to suppress mosquitos, but they had significant agricultural potential that was exploited to a limited degree by the Tharu ethnic group who were resistant to malaria. Following eradication of malaria that begain in the 1950s, farmers from the hills settled in these valleys and exploited the agricultural potential to a much greater degree.
A higher range of foothills called the Mahabharat lies north of these valleys, or north of the Siwaliks where there are no valleys separating the two ranges. This is where the Terai gives way to the hill region.
Rivers including the large Koshi, Narayani (called the Gandak in India), and Karnali meander across the Terai after breaking through the Mahabharat and Siwalik ranges.
Today, the majority of Nepal's population and most of the cities and towns are found in this region. In terms of both farm and forest lands, it is becoming Nepal's richest economic region. Except for the Siwalik ranges, this is a zone of flat land with abundant water supplies for intensive agriculture, and it has the largest commercially exploitable forests. Furthermore it is better supplied with roads, electricity and other infrastructure than the hills to the north.

Climate

Satellite image of Nepal in October 2002
Nepal has a great deal of variation in climate. Its latitude is about the same as that of Florida, so the low elevation Terai has a tropical and subtropical climate. Above the Terai, the climate is completely different due to higher elevations. The east-west-trending Himalayan ranges to the north and the monsoonal alteration of wet and dry seasons also contribute to local variations in climate. Scholar Sharad Singh Negi identifies five climatic zones in Nepal based on altitude: a tropical and subtropical zone below 1,200 meters (the frost limit in winter), a cool temperate zone between 1,200 and 2,400 meters (where there is at least occasional snowfall in winter), a cold zone between 2,400 and 3,600 meters (tree line), a subarctic zone from 3,600 to 4,400 meters, and an arctic zone above 4,400 meters.
In terms of natural vegetational regimes or distribution patterns, altitude again plays a significant role. Below 1,200 meters, the dominant form of vegetation consists of tropical and subtropical forests that have evolved in response to the monsoonal climate. Altitude also affects annual rainfall or precipitation patterns. Up to about 3,000 meters, annual rainfall totals increase with elevation, but above this they decrease with elevation and latitude. Two other patterns can be discerned. First, given the northwestward movement of the moisture-laden summer monsoon (June to September), the amount of annual rainfall generally decreases from east to west, although there are exceptional areas such as the Pokhara Valley in Central Nepal with higher rainfall due to generally lower "hills" to the south and the main Himalayan Range immediately to the north that stops the northward passage of moist air. Second, adabiatic effects increase rainfall on south- and east-facing mountain slopes, with a rain shadow on northern sides. This reaches its climax in the inner Himalayan region and on the Tibetan Plateau. Eastern Nepal receives approximately 2,500 millimeters of rain annually, the Kathmandu area gets about 1,400 millimeters, and western Nepal about 1,000 millimeters.
The towering Himalayas play a critical role, blocking the northwesterly advances of moist, tropical air from the Bay of Bengal, and ultimately leading to its conversion to rain in the summer. In the winter, this range prevents the outbursts of cold air from Inner Asia from reaching southern Nepal and northern India, thus ensuring warmer winters in these regions than otherwise would be the case.
In addition, there are seasonal variations in the amount of rainfall, depending on the monsoon cycle. Bishop divides the monsoon cycle into four seasons: premonsoon, summer monsoon, postmonsoon, and winter monsoon. The premonsoon season generally occurs during April and May; it is characterized by the highest temperatures, reaching 40 °C during the day in the Terai Region and other lowlands. The hills and mountains, however, remain cool.
The summer monsoon, a strong flow of moist air from the southwest, follows the premonsoon season. For the vast majority of southern Asians, including Nepalese, the term monsoon is synonymous with the summer rainy season, which makes or breaks the lives of hundreds of millions of farmers on the subcontinent. Even though the arrival of the summer monsoon can vary by as much as a month, in Nepal it generally arrives in early June, is preceded by violent lightning and thunderstorms, and lasts through September, when it begins to recede. The plains and lower Himalayas receive more than 70% of their annual precipitation during the summer monsoon. The amount of summer monsoon rain generally declines from southeast to northwest as the maritime wedge of air gradually becomes thinner and dryer. Although the success of farming is almost totally dependent on the timely arrival of the summer monsoon, it periodically causes such problems as landslides; subsequent losses of human lives, farmlands, and other properties (not to mention great difficulty in the movement of goods and people); and heavy flooding in the plains. Conversely, when prolonged breaks in the summer monsoon occur, severe drought and famine often result.
The postmonsoon season begins with a slow withdrawal of the monsoon. This retreat leads to an almost complete disappearance of moist air by mid-October, thus ushering in generally cool, clear, and dry weather, as well as the most relaxed and jovial period in Nepal. By this time, the harvest is completed and people are in a festive mood. The two biggest and most important Hindu festivals-- Dashain and Tihar (Dipawali)--arrive during this period, about one month apart. The postmonsoon season lasts until about December.
After the postmonsoon, comes the winter monsoon, a strong northeasterly flow, which is marked by occasional, short rainfalls in the lowlands and plains and snowfalls in the high-altitude areas. The amount of precipitation resulting from the northeast land trade winds varies considerably but increases markedly with elevation. The secondary winter precipitation in the form of snowfalls in the Himalayas is important for generating a sufficient volume of spring and summer meltwaters, which are critical for irrigation in the lower hills and valleys where agriculture predominates. Winter precipitation is also are indispensable for the success of winter crops, such as wheat, barley, and numerous vegetables.

River system
Nepal can be divided into three major river systems from east to west: the Koshi River basin, the Narayani River basin (India's Gandak River), and the Karnali River basin. All ultimately become major tributaries of the Ganges River in northern India. After plunging through deep gorges, these rivers deposit their heavy sediments and debris on the plains, thereby nurturing them and renewing their alluvial soil fertility. Once they reach the Tarai Region, they often overflow their banks onto wide floodplains during the summer monsoon season, periodically shifting their courses. Besides providing fertile alluvial soil, the backbone of the agrarian economy, these rivers present great possibilities for hydroelectric and irrigation development. To date Nepal has not made extensive use of its hydorlelectric resourses. All of them make use of the natural elevation differences, diverting water from the river and running it through turbines further downstream. The latest one is the Kali Gandaki hydroelectricity project a few km north of Tansen. Building dams in Nepal has remained a disputed issue, mainly because of the high risk of earthquakes in the region. None of the river systems support any significant commercial navigation facility. Rather, the deep gorges formed by the rivers represent immense obstacles to establishing the broad transport and communication networks needed to develop an integrated national economy. As a result, the economy in Nepal has remained fragmented. Because Nepal's rivers have not been harnessed for transportation, most settlements in the Hill and Mountain regions remain isolated from each other. As of 1991, trails remained the primary transportation routes in the hills.

Nepal's towns, villages, rivers and peaks
The eastern part of the country is drained by the Koshi River, which has seven tributaries. It is locally known as the Sapt Kosi, which means seven Kosi rivers (Tamur, Likhu Khola, Dudh, Sun, Indrawati, Tama, and Arun). The principal tributary is the Arun, which rises about 150 kilometers inside the Tibetan Plateau. The Narayani River drains the central part of Nepal and also has seven major tributaries (Daraudi, Seti, Madi, Kali, Marsyandi, Budhi, and Trisuli). The Kali Gandaki, which flows between the Dhaulagiri Himal and the Annapurna Himal (Himal is the Nepali variation of the Sanskrit word Himalaya), is the main river of this drainage system. The river system draining the western part of Nepal is the Karnali. Its three immediate tributaries are the Bheri, Seti, and Karnali rivers, the latter being the major one. The Maha Kali, which also is known as the Kali and which flows along the Nepal-India border on the west side, and the Rapti River also are considered tributaries of the Karnali.

Area and boundaries
Area
Total: 147,181 km²
Land: 143,181 km²
Water: 4,000 km²
Area - comparative
Roughly 1⅔ Tasmania's size
Roughly twice New Brunswick's size
Slightly less than twice Scotland s size
Slightly larger than Arkansas
Land boundaries
Total: 2,926 km
Border countries: China 1,236 km, India 1,690 km
Coastline
0 km (landlocked)
Maritime claims
None (landlocked)
Elevation extremes
Lowest point: Kanchan Kalan 70 m
Highest point: Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) 8,848 m

Resources and land use
Natural resources
Quartz, water, timber, hydropower, scenic beauty, small deposits of lignite, copper, cobalt, iron ore
Land use
Arable land: 21.68%
Permanent crops: 0.64%
Other: 77.68% (2001)
Irrigated land
11,350 km² (1998 est.)

Forests
25.4% of Nepal's land area, or about 36,360 km² (14,039 mi²) is covered with forest according to FAO figures from 2005. FAO estimates that around 9.6% of Nepal's forest cover consists of "primary forest" which is relatively intact. About 12.1% Nepal's forest is classified as "protected" while about 21.4% is "conserved" according to FAO. About 5.1% Nepal's forests are classified as "production forest." Between 2000-2005, Nepal lost about 2640 km² of forest. Nepal's 2000-2005 total deforestation rate was about 1.4% per year meaning it lost an average of 530 km² of forest annually. Nepal's total deforestation rate from 1990-2000 was 920 km² or 2.1% per year. The 2000-2005 true deforestation rate in Nepal, defined as the loss of primary forest, is -0.4% or 70 km² per year.

Environmental concerns
Natural hazards
Severe thunderstorms, flooding, landslides, drought, and famine depending on the timing, intensity, and duration of the summer monsoons
Environment - current issues
Deforestation (overuse of wood for fuel and lack of alternatives); contaminated water (with human and animal wastes, agricultural runoff, and industrial effluents); wildlife conservation; vehicular emissions
Environment - international agreements
Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
Signed, but not ratified: Marine Life Conservation
Geography - note
Landlocked; strategic location between China and India; contains eight of world's 10 highest peaks

Lukla

Lukla is a town in the Khumbu region of eastern Nepal where most people visiting the Himalayas near Mount Everest start their journey. Lukla, at 2,860 metres (9,380 ft.), contains a small airport where most people begin and end their adventure in the region. Although Lukla means place with many goats and sheep, one is not likely to see many roaming around these days.
Looking across the township of Lukla, with the air strip of Lukla Airport in the foreground.Somewhere between 90-95% of the foreign nationals who reach Lukla will arrive by a ½ hour flight from Kathmandu. The remainder will mainly trek in from Jiri, about a seven to eight day walk. On organized treks, most of the Nepalese guides and kitchen staff will also walk from Jiri to Lukla, albeit in about half the time unless clients are also with them. When Tenzing Norgay and Sir Edmund Hillary made the famous first ascent of Mt. Everest in 1953, that expedition also walked in from Jiri.
Lukla has a variety of shops and lodges where one can have basic western style meals and pick up any last minute items for the trekking or climbing ahead. If one cannot find required items in Lukla, better luck can be had in Namche Bazaar. There are a couple of good climbing shops (e.g. Mountain Madness) in Namche where one can rent carabiners, helmets, ice axes, jumars and harnesses. However, plastic mountaineering boots and crampons are best rented in Kathmandu if they are needed.
From Lukla, most trekking groups will take two days to reach Namche Bazaar, a nice easy pace to help in altitude acclimatization. Distance wise, this segment is doable in one long day (~8 to 10 hours) but not advised due to increased risk of altitude sickness. If not in a formal trekking group, one should double-check tickets with the airline before leaving Lukla. Empty seats on flights between Kathmandu and Lukla are a rarity during the prime seasons and people being bumped off their flights is not uncommon.