Thursday, November 12, 2009

some links

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Thursday, March 5, 2009

EU report says online shopping increasingly popular

Online shopping is increasingly popular in the European Union (EU) but barriers to cross-border trade are holding back its development, the European Commission said in a report on Thursday. Between 2006 and 2008 the proportion of EU consumers buying at least one item over the Internet increased from 27 percent to 33 percent. These average figures mark the huge popularity of online shopping in countries like Britain, France and Germany where more than half of Internet users have made online purchases in the last year. In the Nordic countries, namely Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Iceland, the proportion of Internet users who bought products and services online was 91 percent in 2008, according to the report. Countries like Italy and Spain are also fast growing markets. However, the extent of online purchasing cross border remains small, at only seven percent in 2008, compared to six percent in 2006. The report warned that numerous obstacles, such as linguistic, practical and regulatory as well as important trust issues are holding back the development of online shopping in the EU. "Already 150 million consumers shop online, although only 30 million shop online cross border," EU Consumer Commissioner Meglena Kuneva said. "We must see to it that adoption of the Internet platform will not be unnecessarily slowed down by a failure to remove important regulatory barriers or to address important trust issues for consumers." As a follow-up, Kuneva will in September present the results of independent "mystery shopping" to identify how and where consumers are being prevented from shopping online across the EU.
Source:Xinhua

Tuesday, March 3, 2009

Using Software

As stated earlier software is anything created and/or stored on a computer or computer storage device (like a disk). The work that is produced using an application or program is also software and is usually referred to as a file or a document.

Files & Documents

Once you have typed or created a new document or file on your computer, you will have to decide what to do with it. You could print it right away using a Print command and then Exit or Quit your program without saving it, but most of the time you will want to Save your document for future use.

The computer saves its information on a disk, most often the hard disk, and the users determines where and when the file or document is saved.

Folders & Directories

On the disk are directories or collection of folders. These directories or folders could be compared to a filing cabinet. All files are stored in a directory. Most hard disks have many directories or folders and files can be stored in any of them.

Directories can have sub-directories and sub-sub-directories many levels down. The directory immediately below the current directory is called the child directory. The directory immediately above the current one is called the parent directory. The top of the directory structure is called the root directory.

When a user adds or installs a new program on the computer the installation process will usually create a new directory or folder to store the application's files.

Users can create and delete directories or folders as the need arises. Older version of DOS require that the directory be emptied of files before it can be deleted. When removing a directory always check before deleting it to make sure that it doesn't contain files you need.

You can easily move files from one folder or directory to another using menu commands, drag & drop using the mouse or a file utility. It is important to understand your computer's directory structure as a file can be misplaced if it is saved in the wrong directory.

One of the main problems new users have is creating a filing system. Modern operating systems address the 'filing problem' by automatically creating a (My) Documents folder. By saving files or documents in this folder you will always know where to look for your files. Create sub-folders within this folder for your main projects. Examples could be a separate folder for your correspondence called Letters or a folder for images called Graphics or Pictures. The main Documents folder can also be renamed to what every name you want it to be called. If you are not using Windows 9x simply create your own folder and sub-folders to save your documents in.

Saving Files or Documents

In order to save a new document or file you must first choose the Save command. Most modern software place this command in a menu which you access with the mouse button or Alt key. Each file must be given a filename so it can be found easily the next time it is needed.

Computers using DOS 6.X or older must follow the 8.3 rule: a filename can only be 1 to 8 characters long followed by a 1 to 3 character extension separated by a dot (period or full stop).

Modern operating systems allow computer users to use filenames up to 256 characters. Mac users, Windows 9X & NT/2000 and UNIX/LINUX (along with a few other) use long file names but names using over 32 characters get unwieldy. It is better to use a directory or folder to help describe them and keep common files together.

Many modern software programs (applications) add their own extension to filenames. These extensions allow operating systems to recognize certain filenames and associate (match) them to the program that created it.

As well as choosing a filename, users must choose a directory and/or disk to store the file in. Make sure that you are consistent and use a logical structure. Once you are sure you know where the file is going to be stored press Enter on the keyboard or press the left mouse button over the word Save or Okay to store the document on a disk, in the directory with the filename you have chosen. Some software programs will automatically save files in specific directory that is created when the program is installed (default settings). You can easily changed these settings permanently using the applications Preferences or temporarily at the point of saving the file.

Some common rules are:
All files are saved on a disk or storage device.
A disk is usually broken up into directories and sometimes into partitions.
A directory or folder is a way of keeping like files in a common area.

A partitioned disk, though physically a single disk, is treated like separate disks and given a separate drive letter (and/or name).

It is possible to save or move files anywhere that your computer can access. This includes disk (or other storage devices) on your computer, to any directory or sub-directory on your computer or on a network that your computer is connected to. Always make sure that you have chosen the correct directory and filename before pressing Enter or choosing Save.

Printing

The promise of a paperless office has not happened though conservation is catching on and it is possible to reduce paper consumption by using your computer more effectively. Having said that many computers are attached to printers and there are many reasons to print out documents that you create on your computer. Most software programs and applications allow the user to print the information that is created in the program.

When choosing a printer consider the peripheral equipment that you will need as well as the actual printer. Peripherals include paper, ribbons or ink cartridges, toner and occasionally print heads.

You may have to adjust some of the settings for the printer to get the output you want. Density adjustments determine how much ink is placed on the paper or how many dots per inch (DPI). Draft quality will printer quicker but creates a fainter copy (less dense). Modern Software has a Preview option which show what the page will look like when it is printed. Portrait prints the document up and down. Landscape prints the document on it's side. Most software allows the user to adjust the margin width or the blank space at the top, bottom, left and right edge of the paper.

Exit or Quit

It is important to Exit or Quit a program, application and the operating system before shutting off the computer. It is a good idea to Quit a program when you are finished with it as it takes up memory. Exiting a program should free up the memory that the program was using. Having a number of programs running simply uses up resources that may be needed in another project.

Exiting properly also saves the program settings so that when you return to the application many changes that were made will still be active.

Menus
Menus are the most common way of interacting or controlling your software. Though each program has it's own menu, modern software developers have begun establishing some standardization in how they create their menus. Many programs have a menu called File which controls things like Opening, Saving and Printing your file and Exiting the program. Many also have an Edit menu which contains the main editing commands like Cut, Copy and Paste.

The items on the menu are Commands or the features of the program. You choose the command that you want with the keyboard, mouse, trackball or touchpad. Commands control the operation of the software.

Menu bars are usually positioned at the top of the screen and are accessed by moving the cursor to the menu and pressing the button (left button if there are two). This displays a pull down menu with a number of commands or features. Depending on how the program works either let go of the button and move to the command you want then press the button again to choose it or while holding down the button, move to the command and let go to choose it.

Menus can also be controlled through the keyboard. The most common way of accessing the menu through the keyboard is by pressing the Alt key and using the Arrow or Cursor Movement keys to move through the menu items, then pressing Enter to choose the item you want. Many menu items can also be accesses using Hot key combinations. One common keyboard combination is to first tap the Alt key and then press letter key for the command you want.

Menus are created in a hierarchy. Some menu items branch out to give even more choices. Some menu items open Dialog Boxes that allow you to choose from a number of different options.

Dialog boxes allow computer users to select different options. Some dialog boxes have 2 or more Tabs which can be clicked to choose more options. Once the options have been chosen press Okay to apply the options. Some dialog boxes have an Apply button which will apply the options that you have chosen without closing the dialog box. Choose Cancel to close the dialog box without applying the changes selected. Note that options set with the Apply button cannot be canceled this way.

Modern software places the most popular commands on a toolbar for easier access. Simply click the left mouse button over the menu item to access a particular command. These tool bars can usually be customized and often allow the user to move or Tear Off the menu and drag them to a preferred location or Dock on the screen. Menus can also be customized by adding or removing commands.

Windows has a context sensitive menu that is activated with the right button. When the right mouse button is click over an object on the screen or area of the screen, a specific menu with commands related to that object will be displayed. Click the left mouse button on the command to choose it.

Installing New Software

Most software sold today has an automated install sequence that is activated with the press of a button. The installation process will create a directory, if necessary, to store the files related to the new program, uncompress and copy the files to the directory and often adds itself the desktop (Start) menu. Many installation processes will also copy files to other parts of the computer and register itself with the operating system by updating the registry. Some programs will associate themselves to a certain filename extension.

Older software many not have this option. The installation procedure is the same though. First create a folder or drawer to store the program and it's related files in. This makes it easy to find them and minimizes file clutter in the main directory. Copy the files from the installation disk to the folder that you will be running the program from. A lot of Software is compressed and you may need to uncompress it before you can use it. You then can create a new item, create a short cut to the program or add it to your desktop menu or utility program.

Backing up Files

Computer errors and software failures happen ocasionally so it is important to backup your files and documents.

One simple way to backup your files is to copy them to a disk. If there are only a few small files a floppy disk will work but if you are backing up lots of large files a cd burner, a second hard drive or tape backup may be needed. You can use a software program to automate backups or do it manually. A manual backup usually involves dragging the files or folders to the backup disk or tape to create the duplicate backup.

Store your backup files in a safe place out of the sun and away from electro-magnetic devices such as speakers and wires with strong electrical currents.

Every file that you create and plan to keep should be backed up. This includes word processing documents, financial information, databases, photos, etc...

Some less obvious files that also need to be backed up are email, Internet Favorites or Bookmarks, and Address Books. Check the help files in your email program on how to back up email. Generally each folder name in your email program is a file containing the individual email messages and copying these files to the backup disk or tape will be sufficient. Software preferences such as customized menus and settings can also be backed up. Check your software's help files to find out where these files are located.

A newer software version may be installed on the computer before ever needing the backups so make sure that the newer programs can handle the older file format.

When to backup is an individual choice. A company should have a backup policy which explains how and when data should be backed up. It all depends on how important the information is and how difficult it would be to duplicate it in the event of a system failure. If the information is critical an automatic backup system that duplicates the documents immediately may be needed (a Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) system is an example). If the files are not critical a weekly backup may be all that is needed. It is impossible to determine when a system failure will occur so it is better be cautious.

The backed up data can then be used as an archive, to recover from a system failure or to transfer data to a new computer system. Simply copy the files to the correct folder to restore them. Backup software will have an automatic recovery feature that will restore the backed up file automatically.

Compression and Decompression

Most software you buy or get off the Internet is compressed. Computers store information in bytes which are made up of on or off signals. The software applications that uses these files need to have all the on and off signals (bytes) in place but when the file is stored they can be modified to take up less space on the storage disk or tape.

There are commercial and shareware programs that will compress and decompressed files for you. The most popular form of data compression is called zip or stuffs it but there are others available as well.

Programs are also available to compress and decompress your files as you or the application you are using requires them. This can be a way of making more space available on a hard drive. Windows comes with a program that will compress part of your hard disk. Be sure to read the documentation before embarking on a project like compressing a hard drive.

The Desktop

The Desktop offers many features that make using your computer easier. You can easily start programs or applications, copy and move files from one place to another and drag and drop files and program where you want them on the computer or even on to a program's icon to open a file. Open and Save menus are streamlined to allow all applications to have the same basic features plus program specific features.

Operating systems are often backwardly compatible with older system so that older programs will run. Usually when new programs are created they are designed to work with the newest operating system to allow them to use all the newest features.
Desktop

Menu

The Start Button or Apple menu starts programs, opens documents, and access most parts of the system. Windows Program and Apple Dock menus can be customized as needed.
Program or Dock displays a list of the programs that are installed through Windows and available to use
Documents displays a list of the last 15 documents used allowing the user to open them directly from this menu
Settings displays system components, such as printers, control panel and taskbar
Find/Search has search abilities to find files, folders and phrases in documents on your computer
Help displays help topics broken up into contents, index and find components
Run allows you to start a program from a command line
Shut down shuts down the computer, restarts the computer or logs you off a network
Favorites and Active Desktop is an option available to Windows 98+ (or Internet Explorer 4x) users
Taskbar (Windows) or Dock (Apple) displays the program running and windows open
To bring a program or window to the front single click on the item on the taskbar or dock
Right click in Windows and click hold in Apple to display a menu for the item
Right click an open area or click hold the seperator for a Taskbar or Dock menu
The Window system tray on the right of the Taskbar displays indicators for certain tasks
(For instance a printer icon will appear when the printer is engaged)
Click and drag the Taskbar to the top, bottom, left or right and choose Dock properties to place Dock on left, right or bottom
Drag the Taskbar to extend it and the Dock to make it bigger
Drag and icon to the Dock or Taskbar to add an alias or shortcut and drag the icon off to remove it
The Dock and Taskbar can be hidden until needed
Use Start/Settings/Taskbar to customize the Start menu properties and choose Apple/Dock to change the Dock properties

Control Panel & System Preferences
Used to change system settings like screen savers, time, screen colours
Also used to add and remove programs, fonts add and make changes to hardware and software settings
Computer
Displays all the components of the computer including disk drives and networks
All parts of the computer can be accessed through My Computer's hierarchical structure
Double click on any icon to view the contents of a disk, folder or run a program
Windows & Finder

All programs, folders, tasks and most other operations open in a window.



Windows are used to:
Share common attributes through out the entire system
Contain menus for File, Edit, View and Help which change depending on the task
File
Open, rename, delete or change properties of files and folders
Send To used to open files in a specified program
Create "Shortcuts"
Edit
Move, copy and paste files and folders
Undo the last change
View
1. Change how files are displayed
2. Toggles Toolbar and Status bar (Microsoft)
3. Sorts files by choosing column name
4. Can be set system wide
Help
Displays help topics for active application

Toolbar
Displays icon menu of main options

Status bar
Shows current status of the window (Microsoft)

Shortcuts & Aliases
Can be created anywhere that is convenient to access a program, file or folder
Select item and choose Create Shortcut or Make Alias then drag or move it to where it is needed
Use the right mouse button to drag the item to the target and choose Create Shortcut Here from the menu that appears (Microsoft)
When you delete a Shortcut or Alias the original application and its icon remain intact

Favorites
Collection of short cuts to documents, programs and websites
Programs & Features
Some Features
Long file names - document names can now use names up to 255 characters including spaces using any character except \ / : * ? " < >
Plug and Play - many hardware devices like CDs, tape drives, upgrade cards, etc... will automatically be detect and can be automatically install on the system
32 bit Preemptive Multitasking - allows users to leave a task running while working on another
Right Mouse button - used to display event specific or context sensitive menus (Microsoft)
Drag and Drop feature allows files or other information to be dragged from one area and dropped in a new location or into an other application
Active Windows - make your Desktop behave like a web site (Microsoft)
Software Update - automates updating software through the Internet
System Information or Profile - provides information about the computer system

Using Help
To get help about a specific procedure click the help button in the top right corner of the screen
Contents list general topics grouped by subject
Index list specific topics accessed by scroll bars or typing the topic
Find creates an index of words in Help and allows searches by word or phrase
Click Help Topics to return to the Help menu
Troubleshooters will step you through a series of steps to solve computer problems (Microsoft)
Microsoft Explorer Bar
Folder, Search, Favorites, Radio and History information is displayed on the left side of thewindow
Click a folder or link to display contents on the right
Click plus to expand or show the sub-folders and minus to hide them

Using Old DOS Programs
Many older DOS program will run under Window
The PIF editor is replaced with a Properties dialogue box
Note that some DOS programs cannot run in a window and require a full screen

Using Older Software in MAC OS 10.x
When Apple OS 10.x tries to open an older version of a program is will run it in Classic mode
Switching between tasks (programs/applications/folders)
Depending in your system's resources you can have many programs running at once and easily switch from one to another using various methods
While hold down Alt, tap the Tab key to cycle through a menu of running tasks
Click on the taskbar or dock icon of the task you want to bring it to the front

Hints & Shortcuts

The right mouse button is a great feature of the Windows operating system and can be a real time saver. Right click on;
An empty space of the desktop to change Desktop Properties,
My Computer to display or modify your computer's properties,
Network Neighborhood to display and modify your network properties,
Start menu item to modify it,
Right click an icon to work with it, etc.

On a Mac hold the mouse button down to display a context menu.
Backing up files

Many backup options are done automatically by the computer which will provide various options to recover them in a crisis but a hard drive error can happen at any time and without warning. Be sure to back up all your personal and business data on a regular basis. If you have a second hard drive files can be backed up to that drive. A CD-R can also be used to make a back up or a collection of floppy disks can also be used. When backing up files don't forget your email and address book. Some people also have extensive collections of favorites that can be backed up as well. Check your email, address book and browser for information on backing up these files. Some programs have an export feature that can be useful when making back ups.
Different Methods of Opening Documents and Programs
Open a program and use the Open command in the File menu
Use the Documents command in the Start or Apple menu to open a recently used document
Use the Find command in the Start menu or the Sherlock program on a Mac
Double click on an icon in a Folder
Right click and choose Open
Choose Start, Run and type the application (and path)
Creating Folders
Use the New Folder option in the File menu (or right click) to create a folder in the active window
Moving and Deleting Files
Use Drag & Drop to drag the file or folder from one folder to another
with the right button a menu will appear allowing you to Copy or Move the file or folder (Windows)
files on the same disk are moved (hold Ctrl to copy)
files on another disk are copied (hold Ctrl to move)

Use the Edit menu to Cut the file and Paste it in the destination folder

Hold down Shift while Deleting a file to by pass the Recycle Bin and permanently delete files
Multiple Selection
to select files sequentially click on the first file and move to the last file, hold down shift and click on the last file in the sequence
to select files non-sequentially click on the first file and hold Ctrl while clicking the rest
the two methods can be used in combination

Organizing your files and icons

It is important to develop a filing system early. Create a folder on your Desktop to store your data. Create sub-folders within that folder to sort the various documents, image, sounds and other files that you create and use. A new folder can be created easily and given a logical name which will help organize data.
My Documents or Documents is the default folder created by the operating system and can be used as is or rename

Troubleshooting
Both Windows and Mac have a number of tools built in to assist in solving computer problems
Choosing Help allow Window users to access Troubleshooting Wizards that provide step-by-step suggestions
System Information under System Tools provide valuable information and access to other system tools in Window
System Profiler under Application, Utilities provide information about the Mac
Running a Disk Scan occasionally or on a schedule can solve many simple errors

Word Processing
The keyboard of a word processor is similar to that of a typewriter, but its capabilities extend far beyond the typewriters. For example, you don't have to press the Return or Enter key at the end of every line - in word processing, the line "wraps around" when it reaches the margin you've set and allows you to continue typing without stopping, you only press Enter (or Return) when you want to start a new paragraph or insert blank lines. If you make a mistake while typing use backspace or delete to erase it.

There are many commercial word processing programs including Open Office Writer, Microsoft Word, Corel WordPerfect and others. Windows comes with WordPad to edit and format documents and Notepad to edit text. Mac OS X comes with Text Edit or SimpleText in previous version. Open Office is an Open Source office application that can be downloaded for free at openoffice.org.


Editing functions such as inserting, deleting, moving, and copying characters, words, lines, and even blocks of text are fast and easy with only a few keystrokes. Advanced programs will number pages, repeat material in the same place on every page automatically, and check the spelling of every word in your document. You print your document only after it looks exactly the way you want it to. Finally, copies of your documents can be stored on a disk, enabling you to retrieve, edit, and print them at any time.

The text appears at the cursor. Use the space bar to place spaces between words. Use backspace to erase to the left of the cursor and delete to erase to the right of the cursor. Use Enter (or Return) to move the cursor down a line.

Word processors allow you to type your text in Bold, Italics or Underline. This is useful when you wish to highlight some word or line in a document. To activate Bold, Italics or Underline click the icon button on the Toolbar, type the text that you wish to have highlighted then press Toolbar icon again when you are finished. The indicator on the Toolbar will appear highlighted as long as the highlight style is on.

The text can also be modified by changing the Font. A font is the shape and size of a character of text. The three main types are serif (with tails); sans-serif (without tails); and script (similar to handwriting). Text colours can also be changed.

Text can also be indented and tab settings added which modify where the text is placed on the page. Rather than press the space bar more than once set tabs where you want the cursor to move to.

The page can be modified by changing the margins, adding headers or footers (repeating text on each page), page numbering, graphic images and various other ways.

The Insert key toggles between Insert and Type over. Sometimes an indicator on the bottom of the screen will display the typing mode you are in. Normally, any text after the cursor will be pushed across the screen (inserted) as new characters are typed in. With Type over on the new character will just replace the old character at the cursor.

Editing text is quite easy once you get used to it. Select text that you want to modify with the mouse or by holding down Shift and using the arrow keys. Holding Control (CTRL) will select text one word at a time.

Once you have the text selected use Cut (Ctrl-X) to cut the text off the page and into a clipboard. Use Copy (Ctrl-C) to transfer a copy of the selected text to the clipboard. Use Paste (Ctrl-V) to paste the text into the document at the cursor. The Windows clipboard will only hold a single selection of text which is replaced with each new cut or copy.

If you make a mistake most modern programs have an Undo feature (Crtl-Z). Many also have a Redo feature.

Most word processors will check your spelling and many have thesauruses and will check your grammar. Don't rely on the editing tools to replace a good proof reading though! (as this editor tends to do ;)

Database

A Database is a collection of information stored in a way that makes it easy to retrieve, modify and search. A database can be stored in a single file with all the information stored together in a single table which is called a flat database or stored in multiple tables with some common access information referred to as a relational database.

There are many commercial database programs including Microsoft Access, Corel Paradox, FileMaker, IBM DB and others. There are also an Open Source databases such as OpenOffice.org Base and MySQL.

Each person or item in a database has its own Record. Each piece of information about that person or record is stored in Fields. All the information in all the records makes up the Database.

Each Field can have information typed into it. Use the Tab key to move forward through the Field and the Shift-Tab to move backwards. Many databases also allow users to use the arrow keys to move around as well.

Though many fields only allow a single line of input some allow multiple lines. When the cursor reaches the bottom of a field with multiple lines the text will scroll upwards to show any information that is below the line of sight. If there is more text in the field than there is room on the screen using the arrow keys to move the cursor through the text?

It is possible to mask individual fields to make data entry easier. For instance the field for phone numbers can be formatted to only allow numbers to be entered.

There are many different ways to use information in a database. In order to use it you can search for and display information using various filters to allow or disallow certain records to display. This is referred to as a query.

The data can be arranged to create reports and print the information in a specific format.

It is crucial that the information typed into a Database or information updated be saved before leaving the program. Many data errors can be traced back to power-failures or accidental computer shut downs.

The data can also be used by other programs for things like invoicing and form letters. The data from a database can be merged with forms created in other programs for a wide range of uses.

When setting up a database make sure to take a bit of time to decide what fields are needed and how they relate to other information. For instance, if an address is required does it need to be broken down into a number of fields such as street, apartment, city, etc? Does the street need to be broken down into house number, street name, street type, etc? Does a phone number need a separate field for the area code? Taking time to decide what is needed before beginning a database project is better than spending many frustrating hours modifying the data in the future.

Spreadsheet

Spreadsheets are used to work with financial information. Spreadsheet charts are laid out in numbered rows and lettered columns. Where the row and column intersect is called a cell. The cell is referred to by the letter and number of the intersection called the cell address. The first cell in a chart is at the intersection of column A and row 1 and is referred to as Cell A1.

Some commercial Spreadsheets are Microsoft Excel , Corel QuatroPro , Lotus 123 and others. OpenOffice.org Calc is an Open Source office program that is free to download and use. Tax and accounting software are also spreadsheets but are designed to provide tools and utilities which help get the specific job done. A B C
1
2
3


When working with numbers in a spreadsheet, refer to the cell addresses when creating mathematical formulas. This is because any changes you make to a single cell will be automatically updated without having to reenter the numbers in the rest of the cells.

Use the plus sign (+) to add; the minus (-) sign to subtract; the asterix (*) to multiply; and the back slash (/) to divide.

Spreadsheets use formulas to create simple to complex mathematical equations. A sheet can be built to handle the financial needs of businesses.

Most of the standard editing features are available in the spreadsheet such as Bold, Italics, Underline, Move, Copy and Paste.

Information from a spreadsheet can be displayed in chart form.

Most spreadsheet programs include templates to handle many of the average financial needs of a home user or small business. These templates can be modified or customized to personalize them for your own needs.

Most modern spreadsheet programs allow users to work on many sheets at once and access information from any of the sheets in the workbook group.

Graphic Images, Sounds & Animation

Graphics
Computer graphics are anything that can be displayed on the screen except the text and sometimes even text falls into the graphics category if it is save in a graphics format. Commercial graphics programs include; Corel Photo Paint Corel Draw
Macromedia Fireworks Macromedia Freehand
Adobe Photoshop Adobe Illustrator
LView ULead
...and many others


There are basically two types of computer graphic, bitmapped and vector/structured.

Bitmapped graphics are images that are mapped to the monitor or screen. The screen is made up of tiny dots called pixels. These dots can display various colours depending on the type of computer hardware and software you have. Using shades of red, green and blue (RGB) an image can be displayed on the screen by mapping different colours to the screen in different sequences.

Vector graphics use objects created from mathematical formulas to represent things like lines, curves, fills, line thickness, etc. to create the image.

Each type of graphic has it's own advantages and disadvantages. Older versions of HTML were only able to recognizes bitmapped graphics so most graphics created for the Internet, using standard HTML, are created or converted to a bitmap format. The newest version of HTML or XHTML is able to display vector graphics but not all browsers are able to display these graphics.

Within each of the two main types there are dozens of different formats.

Graphics formats are distinguished by their filename extensions.

The three main bitmapped format graphics used on the Internet are .gif, .jpeg (.jpg) and .png. There are many others including .bmp, .tiff (.tif), .pcx, .ppm, .tga and a host of others.

Some of the structured formats are .ai, .cmx, .eps, .wpg, .cgm and a host of others.

Bitmapped graphics can be created and modified in a paint program and vector or structured graphics can be created and modified in a draw program.

The main tools in a graphics program allow you to select a section of a picture, erase part of a picture, fill a defined area, select a colour, magnify a section, draw free hand, draw with various tools such as a straight line; a curved line; a rectangle; an oval; and a polygon. You can also modify a drawing by changing the size, colour, placement, and, depending on the program, hundreds of other modification.
Sound

Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) or .mpg is multimedia format that is an attempt to create standardization among the various formats available. MPEG has made it possible to place audio content on your website without having it sound tiny and hollow or taking an extreme amount of time to download. There are many different formats for sound including; Microsoft's .wav, Sun's .au & .snd, RealNetwork's RealAudio, .ra(*), and various others.

You may have heard .mid files play when visiting various websites. Musical Instruments Digital Interface (MIDI) files are basically sound tracks which use a collection of sounds contained in the .mid file to play a tune.

To create a sound file you will need an audio program. You can then record with a microphone or off of a prerecorded medium. Your computer will need to have a sound card properly installed and a speaker to hear your recording. You can save the sound file to play back later.

Animation

With the advent of faster computers comes animation. Though it has been around for years the modern computer has made it possible to include animation in programs without causing them to slow down (much). As with every multimedia format there are a number of types.

You may have seen .gif animations on this website. A GIF animation is a series of separate images or frames that display one after the other to give the impression of movement. Other formats are Audio Visual Interleaf’s .avi, the before mentioned mpg, Microsoft's Media Player .wmv, Apple's Quick Time .qt, .aif(*) & .mov, RealNetwork's RealVideo .rm(*), Macromedia's Flash creates Shockwave .swf, and JavaScript as well as various others.

There are various animation or multimedia players available for a free download off the Internet.

To create animations, sounds or graphics you will need a program that has the capabilities you want. Visit the various multimedia company websites to read up on their product to see if they can do what you want. (Hint: to find a company website type "www.'replace this with the companies name'.com"). Most companies offer free trials that you can download from their website.

You should also be aware that most media content placed on the Internet is considered published material and therefore copyright unless explicitly stated otherwise.

Desktop Publishing
Desktop publishing (dtp) uses both word processing and graphics to produce publications and presentations.

Some common dtp programs are MS Publisher and Quark Express. Both Adobe and Corel have a number of programs that work like dtp programs. OpenOffice.org Draw is an Open Source free option.

Desktop publishing programs layout their documents in a series of slides that can contain text, graphics and dynamic content. Content is added to each slide in a series which can be printed or saved as a slide presentation. Sound and music can also be added to the presentation.

Internet

The Internet or the Net is a collection of computers; all link together, to share information globally. It was first developed in the U.S. by two universities who were both working on the same contract and wanted to share their data. They were faxing information back and forth and then retyping it until they came up with a piece of software called UNIX to UNIX Copy Program or UUCP.

The Internet was born and has mushroomed outward from that point.

There are 4 things that are necessary to "get on the net" with a full graphic interface (picture, sounds, animation, etc...).
A computer - preferably with a fast processor (around 100 MHz or more) and lots of memory (16 meg or more)
A modem - preferably 56,000 baud or high speed digital
Browser Software - often installed with your operating system or can be downloaded off the Internet
An ISP - An Internet Service Provider is a service that connects your home or office computer to the Internet

Once you have purchased an account with an ISP you will be given an account name. This is often your email address as well. You will also be given a password and should also be provided with instructions on how to change the password to a unique and personalized. The generic password provided with your account should be change to one of your own. Protect your password as you would any personal identification number (PIN) number.

The ISP will also provide information on how to configure your software. This can be simple or difficult depending on your Operating System. Once configured you simply run the software to connect your computer's modem to the ISP's modem, giving you access to the Internet.

There are a number of pieces of software that work together to connect you to the Internet.

The first and most complicated is the dialer or socket software. This is the software that makes the physical connection with the ISP's computer and the internet. This needs to be configured only once but you will need instructions from your ISP on how to do this as each ISP has a different setup.


The second piece is an Internet browser. This is the program that locates websites for you and allows users to maneuver around (surf) the World Wide Web and view web pages. Some of the more popular browsers are Mozilla Firebox and Microsoft's Internet Explorer. Mosaic was the first browser and most modern browsers still use the basic model that the first browser used. Some other browser is Opera, Safari, Netscape as well as dozens of others. Before graphic browsers Lynx was the most popular browser and is still available for text browsing. New browser are being developed and current browsers are constantly updating there programs. It is extremely important to update your browser every once in a while. Some ISP has a proprietary type of browser though most have given up this practice as it limits the user’s abilities to browse the Internet.

Type the url or web address of the website that you want to visit in the address bar of your browser and press Enter or click Go. Collect your favorite websites by adding them to your Favorites or Bookmarks. To go to a Favorite or Bookmark, click on the menu and click on the link.

Another piece of software is an email program . This program controls sending, composing and receiving email. Most email programs can also be used to read postings on newsgroups.

Instructions for getting this software can be obtained from your ISP though you may have to download the newest version yourself.


There are many different ISPs. If you attend a university or college or belong to a military or government organization you can most likely get Internet access through your school or work. If not you will most likely buy access from a commercial provider.

Another option, if you are in a major center, is the Freenet. Many major cities have groups devoted to making the Internet accessible to the greater majority of people and create Freenets which allowing members free access to the Internet. They run on private and public donations. It is an excellent way of learning about the Internet in a helpful environment.

Once you are connected you will have access to Email, Newsgroups, the World Wide Web (WWW), File Transfer Protocol (ftp), Internet Relay Chat (irc), Search Engines, ICQ and other Internet Services.


Internet - Email

Email is the electronic equivalent of sending a letter through the mail. There are many different mail reading programs or clients that control email but the basic functions are all the same. An email address directs a message to the recipient.



Email addresses are made up of...
the account name (often the users first initial and then the last name (sometimes only 8 characters)
then the @ symbol
then the name of the user's ISP
the last 2 or 3 characters describe the type of service called the top level domain name. For example .com stand for commercial site, .ca - noncommercial site in Canada, .mil - U.S. military, .gov - U.S. government, .au - noncommercial site in Australia, .net - network, etc... Recently 2 new TLDs were added; .biz, .info.


As well as sending and receiving mail the recipient can;
save the address for future reference in an address book
reply to the original message
forward the message to a third party
edit a message
check the spelling and a wide range of other options.

One of the services provided by your ISP is to provide a storage area or mailbox to collect email in. Email software programs control the transfer of this stored email by downloading the messages from your mailbox on your ISP's computer to your own computer. You must be connected to the Internet to do this.

An email message is made up of two parts; the header information and the body. The recipient's address (to), the subject, the sender's email address as well as other information is contained in the header. The content of the message is in the body. You can find out information about an email message by viewing the header content. Most email programs had a 'view header' option in the menu.

Email can be composed and sent as plain text or HTML. Plain text messages can be read by any email client but most modern email clients can compose and display email documents containing formatting such as bold, different font size and colour, images, etc.

New messages can be written or composed off-line (not connected to the Internet). If the ISP charges by the hour, connect to the Internet only to send and receive your email and then disconnect to read and compose your mail.

Many ISP's also offer web mail programs so that you can logon to check and send email using any internet accessible computer.

Some companies offer free email service that you can sign up for. These free services rely on advertising for revenue so your recipient will also be receive an advertisment with the email. Most free email accounts are accessed through a web browser where the user composes and reads their mail online. The benefit is that you can easily access your mail from any internet terminal and the address is easily disposable (if it gets added to a junk mail list for instance).

You can also attach files to email messages to send picture, sound, documents, videos and other types of file with your email. Some email programs automatically open attachments such as photos and html code. Change the program's properties or options to turn this feature on or off.

Unrequested or spam email has become a problem on the internet. A large percentage of the email sent is this unrequested email which takes up bandwidth and causes prices to rise. Businesses must take time to sort through spam to find the legitimate email which also takes time and money. Most ISPs provide software that will filter out the worst of this email. If you find that you are receiving a lot of unrequested email contact your ISP to see if they can provide you with spam filters.


Email Attachments

An attachment is a computer file or files place inside an email message.

Email was originally designed to handle only plain text (no formatting, ie. bold, centering, etc.) which was transferred from one computer to another in a format called ASCII. ASCII is a standard across all computer types which makes e-mail universal. Today many modern email programs allow HTML (hypertext markup language) to be included in email messages which allow you to format your email messages with font sizes, bold, centre and such. The recipient must have an HTML capable email reader to see the formatting otherwise they will get a document marked up with HTML tags.

To attach a document to an email message drag the file attachment to the body of the message and drop it. An attachment can also be added by choosing File Attachment from the menu. Most modern email programs place a button on the Toolbar usually in the shape of a paper clip that you can click. A dialog box will open that allows you to browse and select the file that you want to attach. You can attach more than one file to a single email message. Don't move the original document until the message has been sent.

Most documents created on computer, such as word processing documents (Word, WordPerfect, etc.) or spreadsheet documents (Excel, Quatro, etc.) or graphic files (Corel Draw, Paint Shop, or .gif and .jpg files) are stored in their own unique binary code format. This binary format is determined by the program that the file is created with. Email documents are create as text files so in order to send a binary file or document via email, it must first be encoded into a text format and then attached to the email text message.

Such an 'encoded' document may end up looking something like this:
ugAAANAAAAALAAAAAgD//zQAQgBvAGQAeQAgAFQAZQB4AHQAAABCAG8AZAB5ACAAVABlAHgAdAAA
ANMFCwAAAQAACwDT0wQdAAATAAD//wUAsAQAmA0AEA4AaBAAK5sdANPUGxkAgAEAAAgAigIAAAAA
AACKAooCGQDU1BpXAIABAQAIAAAAAAAAAAAAHAD0GlwSGgkAABEJAAAAYAAYEQAAECoAVABpAG0A
ZQBzACAATgBlAHcAIABSAG8AbQBhAG4AAAAAAAAAVABUAAAAVwDU1AILAAABAAELANTUAwsAAAEA

These lines are all printable or lower-ASCII characters and can be sent via email. When it gets to your computer and you want to view the document, it first must be decoded or converted back to it's binary format before it can be opened. Today this is typically handled by your Email program.

There are several common encoding standards, the most popular being uuencoding, mime, and bin hex. Not all email packages support even these three, let alone all the non-standard ones. If someone sends you a document encoded in a format that your email program doesn't support the email program will not decode the attachment.

The attached file must be loaded into a program to be viewed. For example, if the attached document was originally created in Microsoft-Word you need Word, Open Office or another modern word processor on your computer to work with the document. Most modern software suites can import documents from other suites.

Most modern email programs work hand-in-hand with your operating system to try and open the correct program required to view the document sent as an attachment. This is done by matching the file extension such as .jpg, .gif, .doc, etc... with a registered file type.

Viruses can also be transferred via email attachments. Because your email software handles the decoding of programs sent as attachments it is easy to infect your computer simply by opening an infected attachment. Always check email attachment with an anti-virus program before opening them.

There are several reasons why an attachment will not display properly or at all:
the encoded file is corrupted and cannot be decoded. This is usually due to damage in transit and happens very seldom these days.
the encoding type is not supported by your e-mail program and so the file cannot be decoded back to it's original type.
the attached document was created in a program that you don't have on your computer or is not a registered file type.
the email program has an option set which automatically locks attached files

When sending an attachment you should think about whether the intended recipient has the same program on their computer. When you are sending an attachment to someone you should always use a standard encoding process (the one that comes with your email program is usally best) and send the document in a format that the recipient can view. If in doubt, ask them first by email.

Macs users should be aware that most Windows user won't be able to decode a binhex file.

If your email software automatically locks attachments and you want to view the attachment you can change the programs settings by modifying the Preferences or Options.

If the formatting isn't important it's better to copy your the text from the original program and then paste it into the body of a plain text email message rather than sending an attachment. Everybody's email software can read this 'plain text' ASCII format.


Internet - Newsgroups & Discussion Groups

Newsgroups are discussion groups that are going on all the time. You can write a message and post it to a newsgroup in the morning and come back to read a reply to the message in the afternoon. You can also reply to other's messages.



There are thousands of news groups covering as many topics. Some are moderated, meaning that a person who has knowledge or an interest in a certain topic will receive the message and read it before posting it. This keeps the discussion on topic. Most are not moderated and the discussion can go anywhere but it can be a great way to get a quick reply to your questions.

As well as the public newsgroups many organizations and companies will provide discussion groups of bulletin boards that focus on areas related to their own topics. This can be a great spot to find out more about an organization, find a solution to a problem you are having and participate in the discussions related to that company or organization.

One problem with posting a message to a discussion or newsgroup is that unscrupulous companies mine the newsgroups for email addresses and then send unsolicited email (spam) to the poster. It is recommended that you disguise your email address using your email software preferences or the bulletin board settings.

Many newsgroups have a publicly accessible faq. A faq is a collection of frequently asked questions that have been posted many times to a newsgroup. You may get a gentle reminder or a completely rude and insulting comment if you post a question that is on the faq. It is acceptable to post a question as where the faq is located and you may find that frequent posters will mention the faq in their message.

Internet - Navigation

World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of web pages connected together with hyperlinks. Each document or page has a unique address that allows you to find it among the millions of other documents on the Web. The address is called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or sometimes a Uniform Resource Indicator (URI). When you chose a new link by clicking on it or by typing it into the address field your browser sends a request for that document and displays it on the screen. That link can be to a different section of the current document, another document on the same website as the original or on another website anywhere in the world. Web pages are designed using hypertext markup language or HTML.

Designing a basic HTML page is not difficult after mastering a few simple codes or if you are planning a website you can have a Web Developer (send me an inquiry) create one for you. The key to the web are the links to different, useful or interesting pages. Many web page user will collect links to their favorite sites or web pages and add them to a bookmark or favorites list.

Receiving information from another computer is called downloading. When a user chooses a web page to go to the browser automatically downloads the information from the page and displays it on the users computer screen. The user can also choose to download specific files. Sending information to another computer is called uploading. To place a web page on a website the developer must upload the file from their computer to the ISPs server.

Being Online means being connected to another computer, whether that computer is your ISP, your friends computer across town or a remote office computer, through a modem, or digital connection. Going Offline means disconnecting your computer from the remote connection.

Internet - Other

File Transfer Protocol (ftp) allows users to transfer files and documents from one computer to another. There are a few different software programs that will make this process quite simple. If you are designing a website you can use ftp to update your website.

Computer users can also use an ftp program to download files and software off the internet. Many companies and universities offer ftp sites that contain software which can be downloaded and used on your computer. A search for 'ftp' will display dozens of ftp programs that can be used to download software.

top

Internet Relay Chat (irc) allows users to participate in real-time discussions with other users through the Internet. A user logs on to an irc site and then types messages and replies to others messages as they are written. Often an irc discussions has a topic and users will join to discuss this topic. Other irc discussions are free flowing and regardless of how centred the discussion is it can take some time to sort out the different threads of discussion in a busy irc. They are also used for online conferences with a famous or knowledgeable person contributing their time to answer questions and present information.

Along the same theme are online game sites where Internet users can compete against other users on the Net.


Instant Messaging software, such as ICQ and MSN allows users to find friends and contacts through the Internet and communicate with them in real time. Users maintain a list of contacts which the software will notify when they are online and contact is available. To use an instant messaging service it is necessary to have and register software available on the Internet. Instant messaging allows you to chat, send messages and files and various other features but only with people you choose. Often the software and registration is free.

Some services also provide the ability to connect a microphone to your computer and talk to your contact. Your contact can talk back using their account and software which you can hear using the computer's speakers or an ear attachment.

Internet - Search

If you are looking for a specific company or organization try typing www.company name.com into the address bar first (e.g. www.grassrootsdesign.com). If it is a "country specific" organization try ending with the specific, 2 character country code rather than .com (click here to display countries and their code).

Search Engines make finding things on the Internet relatively easier. Search engines are run by companies that collect information from the Internet, sort and categorize it and present the information to the user based on keyword searches or through directory listings.

It is worth taking some time to learn how to make an effective keyword search as the amount of information that these search engines provide can be overwhelming. It is common to be provided with 10s of thousands of references to any given search term. By narrowing your search to a specific phrase you can target your searches more effectively. Many search engines require that you enclose a search phrase in quotes (e.g. "the cat in the hat").

Different search engines will display different results and sort those results differently. If you don't find the information you want on one search site try another. Some search companies offer meta searches which are compiled from a number of different search engines' results.

Most search sites offer directory listings as well. The information is categorized in a hierarchy from general categories to specific categories. To find a specific web site follow the links down to the category that matches your interest.

The results from a search are a list of pages with links to the documents that match your search. Each search engine has a different way of displaying the results but generally you will see a list with the name of the organization or title of the page. You may also see a short description of that web page. Clicking on the title will take you to that page.

Though there are hundreds of search engines on the Internet there are only a couple dozen that the majority of people use. If you choose "customize" in your browsers search tool you will see a list of some of these search engines.
Website Search

As well as Internet searches many websites offer a website search feature to help visitors find information on that specific website. Generally there will be a button marked 'Search' beside a text field. Enter your query to display links to the pages that match.

ECommerce


Electronic Transactions on the Internet are becoming common place. Books, software and even groceries can be bought and sold with the click of a button (and a credit card). The biggest problem with doing business over the Internet is the lack of common standards around security. There are dozens of different standards involving hundreds of different methods.

The Internet, by it's nature, is an open system which means that information can flow freely from one computer to the next. Information transmitted through the Internet can be intercepted and copied as any point along the path. For this reason it is not a good idea to send confidential information like credit card numbers through the Internet the same way you might send an email to a friend. In order to send confidential information you must be sure that your private information can not be intercepted along the way.

The most common method is Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). A transaction computer with an order form for the product that you wish to purchase creates a secure connection which ensures that all the information that you send to it is not accessible to anyone else. If information from a secure connection is intercepted it will be encrypted making it useless to persons with malicious intent.

Most small businesses will not find it economical to setup their own secure server and can purchase a service from a third party which offers a transaction service. These services vary but all require a setup fee and some form of payment for transactions performed on their secure server. This payment can involve a monthly fee, a transaction fee, a percentage of the transaction, a credit card company fee or a combination of some/all of these fees.

When considering hiring a transaction service a company should decide whether they want to setup their own merchant agreement with the credit card companies or pay the transaction service to use theirs. Some transaction companies retain a percentage of receipts for security deposit until a proven transaction record is established anywhere from 30 to 90 days. Some allow limited outside development of the forms used on the secure server and other insist that the forms be developed in-house.

Another model is the Secure Electronic Transaction (SET). This model requires that the customer download and install a wallet into which they enter their password protected credit card information. The SET system development was promoted by the major credit card companies to provide a safe and secure environment for online transactions.

The SET "wallet" model requires that the customer obtain a Digital Certificate from a Certified Authority (CA) which they then use to perform the transaction. The Certified Authority, usually the bank or financial institution that the customer deals with, verifies the validity of the Certificate to the merchant. The customer enters their personalized password to verify that they have the authority to use the Certificate and the transaction is made. This model allows customers to use their credit cards to purchase items from merchants without transmitting their actual credit card details to the merchant.

The merchant uses their merchant agreement with the credit card company to complete transactions, process refunds and verify the validity of the customers credit card information.

Though still in its infancy, many billing companies have begun Internet transaction projects using the SET model to allow their customers to pay their bills, check their account status and much more.

Thursday, February 26, 2009

Facebook Backs Down over Rights Issue


Social networking site Facebook has backed down after being overrun with complaints following changes to the way it held personal information.
Facebook changed the terms of using its site, enabling it to hold the rights to members\' pictures and profile information, even if they had deleted their accounts.
Since Facebook made the changes two weeks ago the site had been inundated with complaints from users.
However, Facebook decided to reverse its decision and account holders found a message on their sites informing them of the change when they logged on today.
Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg posted an explanation on the Facebook blog.
He said: "Over the past couple of days, we received a lot of questions and comments about the changes and what they mean for people and their information.
"Based on this feedback, we have decided to return to our previous terms of use while we resolve the issues that people have raised."
But Zuckerberg was keen to reiterate that there would be changes to the Facebook rules in the future, but in language that would "clarify" the site\'s position.
He added: "Our next version will be a substantial revision from where we are now.
"It will reflect the principles I described around how people share and control their information, and it will be written clearly in language everyone can understand."
Facebook was founded in the USA in 2004 and has an estimated 175 million users. (Sky News)


source:http://www.nepalipatra.net

Online Child Abuse Images Warning


Children\'s charities have expressed "serious concerns" many UK households still have access to images showing child sex abuse via their computers.
The government had asked all internet service providers (ISPs) to block illegal websites by the end of 2007. But firms providing 5% of broadband connections have still failed to act.
One of them, Zen Internet, said in a statement: "We have not yet implemented the IWF\'s recommended system because we have concerns over its effectiveness."
It is understood other ISPs have cited the cost of blocking the illegal material as a reason not to participate in the scheme.
But the NSPCC\'s Zoe Hilton said: "Allowing this loophole helps feed the appalling trade in images featuring real children being seriously sexually assaulted." The blocked websites come from a list supplied by the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF), but some smaller providers refuse to use the list. Easy access
The Children\'s Charities Coalition on Internet Safety (CCCIS) says self-regulation is not working and it is calling for firmer action by the government.
Ms Hilton said: "Over 700,000 households in the UK can still get uninterrupted and easy access to illegal child abuse image sites.
"We now need decisive action from the government to ensure the ISPs that are still refusing to block this foul material are forced to fall into line.
Home Office Minister Alan Campbell said: "In 2006 the government stated that they wished to see 100% of consumer broadband connections covered by blocking, which includes images of child abuse, by the end of 2007.
"Currently in the UK, 95% of consumer broadband connections are covered by blocking. The government is currently looking at ways to progress the final 5%." (BBC News

Doctor of Philosophy

Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated Ph.D. or PhD for the Latin philosophiæ doctor, meaning "teacher of philosophy", (or, more rarely, D.Phil., for the equivalent doctor philosophiæ) is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities. In many, but not all countries in the English-speaking world, it has become the highest degree one can earn (but see also the higher doctorates awarded by universities in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries) and applies to graduates in a wide array of disciplines in the sciences and humanities. The Ph.D. has become a requirement for a career as a university professor or researcher in most fields.
The detailed requirements for award of a Ph.D. degree vary throughout the world; however, there are a number of common factors. In some countries (the US, Canada, Denmark, for example), most universities require coursework for Ph.D. degrees. In many other countries (especially those with a greater degree of specialization at the undergraduate level, such as the UK) there is no such condition in general. It is not uncommon, however, for individual universities or departments to specify analogous requirements for students not already in possession of a master's degree.
In countries requiring coursework, there is usually a prescribed minimum amount of study — typically two to three years full time, or a set number of credit hours — which must take place before submission of a thesis. This requirement is usually waived for academic staff submitting a portfolio of peer-reviewed published work. The candidate may also be required to successfully complete a certain number of additional, advanced courses relevant to his or her area of specialization.
A candidate must submit a thesis or dissertation consisting of a suitable body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-refereed context.[1] In many countries a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in principle passable and the issues that need to be addressed before the dissertation can be passed.
Universities in the non-English-speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the Anglophone Ph.D. degree for their research doctorates .

History of the Ph.D. degree
The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-iftta ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs from the 9th century, though it was limited to Islamic law at the time, as in a Doctor of Laws degree.[3] The doctorate was later extended to philosophy in the European universities in the Middle Ages which generally placed all academic disciplines outside the professional fields of theology, medicine and law under the broad heading of "philosophy" (or "natural philosophy" when referring to science). The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was a doctorate, generally granted as honorary degrees to select and well-established scholars.According to Wellington, Bathmaker, Hung, MucCullough and Sikes (2005), the first Ph.D. degree was awarded in Paris in 1150, but not until the early nineteenth century did the term "Ph.D. degree" acquire its modern meaning as the highest academic doctoral degree, thanks to university practice in Germany. As Wellington et al. explain, prior to the nineteenth century professional doctoral degrees could only be awarded in theology (Th.D.), law (J.D.), or medicine (M.D.). In 1861, Yale University adopted the German practice (first introduced in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin) of granting the degree to younger students who had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis/dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities.[4]
From the United States the degree spread to Canada in 1900, and then to the United Kingdom in 1917.[5] This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). Oxford retained the D.Phil. abbreviation for their research degrees. Some newer UK universities, for example Buckingham (est. 1976), Sussex (est. 1961), and, until a few years ago, York (est. 1963), chose to adopt the D.Phil., as did some universities in New Zealand.
Doctor of Philosophy degrees across the globePh.D. degrees are awarded under different circumstances and with different requirements in many different countries.

Australia and New Zealand

AdmissionAdmission to a Ph.D. program within Australia and New Zealand requires the prospective student to have completed a bachelor's degree with an honours component or a higher degree, such as a post graduate master's degree by research or a master's degree by course work.
In most disciplines, honours require an extra year of study including a large research component in addition to coursework; however, in some disciplines such as engineering, law and pharmacy, honours are automatically awarded to high achievers of the normal four-year program. To obtain a Ph.D. position, students must usually gain first class honours, but may sometimes be admitted with high second class honours (known as a 2A, or Second Class Honours Division I). Alternatively, a student who fails to achieve first or second class Honours may apply for a research masters course (usually 12–18 months) and upgrade to a Ph.D. program after the first year, pending sufficient improvement.

Funding
In both Australia and New Zealand, Ph.D. students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their Ph.D. degree. The most common of these in Australia is the government-funded Australian Postgraduate Award (APA), which provides a living stipend to students of approximately AU$ 20,000 a year (tax free). Most universities in both countries also offer a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount, but are funded by the university. In recent years, with the tightening of research funding in Australia, these scholarships have become increasingly hard to obtain. Due to a continual increase to living costs, many Ph.D. students are forced to live under the poverty line,[6]. In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships, Australian and New Zealand students also have other sources of funding in their Ph.D. degree. These could include, but are not limited to, scholarships offered by schools, research centres and commercial enterprise. For the latter, the amount is determined between the university and the organisation, but is quite often set at the APA (Industry) rate, roughly AU$7,000 more than the usual APA rate. Australian and New Zealand students are often also able to tutor undergraduate classes and do guest lectures (much like a teaching assistant in the USA) to generate income. An Australian or New Zealand Ph.D. scholarship is paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6 month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student.
Australian-citizen and other eligible Ph.D. and Research Masters students in Australia are not charged course fees as these are paid for by the Australian Government under the Research Training Scheme. International students and Coursework Masters students must pay course fees, unless they receive a scholarship to cover them. In order to attract top international doctoral students, the New Zealand government reduced international doctoral fees to the domestic fee level in 2006.
ArgentinaSee also: Education in Argentina
Admission
In the Latin American docta, the admission to a Ph.D. program at an Argentine University requires the full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate's degree. Non-Argentinian Master's titles are generally accepted into a Ph.D. program when the degree comes from a recognized university.

Funding
While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as the Fullbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing.[7]
Requirements for completionUpon completion of at least two years' research and course work as a graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to his or her specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.[8] The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This Committee should be composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor — abbreviated, "Dr.", with a suffix appropriate to the specific field — is received after a successful defense of the candidate’s dissertation.[9]

Canada
AdmissionAdmission to a Ph.D. program at a Canadian university may require completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research ability. In some cases, a student may progress directly from an Honours Bachelor's degree to a Ph.D. program. The student usually submits an application package including a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a sample of the student's writing. A common criterion for prospective Ph.D students is the comprehensive or qualifying examination, a process that often commences in the second year of a graduate program. Generally, successful completion of the qualifying exam permits continuance in the graduate program. Formats for this examination include oral examination by the student's faculty committee (or a separate qualifying committee), or written tests designed to demonstrate the student's knowledge in a specialized area (see below).
At English-speaking universities, a student may also be required to demonstrate English language abilities, usually by achieving an acceptable score on a standard examination (e.g., Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)). Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate ability in one or more additional languages. A prospective student applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate some English language ability.

Funding
While some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within the university), in some programs students are advised (or must agree) not to devote more than ten hours per week to activities (i.e., employment) outside of their studies.
At some Canadian universities, most Ph.D. students receive an award equivalent to the tuition amount for the first four years (this is sometimes called a tuition deferral or tuition waiver). Other sources of funding include teaching assistantships and research assistantships; experience as a teaching assistant is encouraged but not requisite in many programs. Some programs may require all Ph.D. candidates to teach, which may be done under the supervision of their supervisor or regular faculty.
Besides these sources of funding, there are also various competitive scholarships, bursaries, and awards available, such as those offered by the federal government via NSERC, CIHR, or SSHRC.
Requirements for completionIn general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the comprehensive examinations. At this stage, the student is known as a "Ph.D. student." It is usually expected that the student will have completed most of his or her required coursework by the end of this stage. Furthermore, it is usually required that by the end of eighteen to thirty-six months after the first registration, the student will have successfully completed the comprehensive exams.
Upon successful completion of the comprehensive exams, the student becomes known as a "Ph.D. candidate." From this stage on, the bulk of the student's time will be devoted to his or her own research, culminating in the completion of a Ph.D. thesis or dissertation. The final requirement is an oral defense of the thesis, which is open to the public.
At most Canadian universities, the time needed to complete a Ph.D. degree typically ranges from four to six years[citation needed]. It is, however, not uncommon for students to be unable to complete all the requirements within six years, particularly given that funding packages often support students for only two to four years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion of the thesis supervisor and/or department chair. Alternate arrangements exist whereby a student is allowed to let their registration in the program lapse at the end of six years and re-register once the thesis is completed in draft form. The general rule is that graduate students are obligated to pay tuition until the initial thesis submission has been received by the thesis office. In other words, if a Ph.D. student defers or delays the initial submission of their thesis they remain obligated to pay fees until such time that the thesis has been received in good standing.

France
AdmissionDue to the differences in French education systems in comparison to anglophone systems, students who want to earn the Ph.D. degree must complete a Master of Science program which lasts for 2 years after graduation with a Bachelor's degree (5 years in total).
In France, the Masters program is divided into two branches, Master of Engineering which orients the students towards the working world. On the other hand, a Master of Science orients the students towards research. The Ph.D admission is adopted by a graduate school (in French, "école doctorale"), a Ph.D Student has to follow some courses offered by the graduate school while continuing his/her research at laboratory. His/her research may be carried out in a laboratory, at a university, or in a company. In the last case, the company hires the student as an engineer and the student is supervised by both the company's tutor and a labs' professor. The validation of the Ph.D degree requires generally 3 to 4 years after the Master degree. Consequently, the Ph.D degree is considered in France as a "Bac +8" diploma ."Bac" stands for "Baccalauréat" which is the French High-school diploma.
FundingThe financing of Ph.D studies comes mainly from funds for research of French Ministry of National Education. These grants often depend of the results and the student's file. However, the student can apply for funds from a company who can host him/her at its premise (as in the case where Ph.D students do their research in a company). Other resources come from some regional/city projects, some associations, etc.
GermanySee also: Education in Germany
AdmissionIn Germany a Master, Diplom, Magister or Staatsexamen (state examination) degree is usually required to gain admission to a doctoral program. Sometimes good grades or a degree in a related field are additional requirements. The candidate must also find a tenured professor or Privatdozent to serve as the formal advisor on the Dissertation throughout the doctoral program. This advisor is informally termed Doktorvater.
Doctoral programs in Germany generally take three to five years to complete, strongly depending on the subject. Since there are usually no formal classes, and the doctoral candidate mainly conducts independent research under the tutelage of a single professor, a good deal of doctoral candidates work as teaching or research assistants, and are paid a reasonably competitive salary. This is a considerable difference from the situation in many other countries (such as the U. S.) where doctoral candidates are often referred to as Ph.D. "students"; whereas with German candidates, this rather inaccurate term should be avoided.
HistoryIn early university history the Doctorate was awarded as a first degree. It has since evolved into a research degree.

In German-speaking countries, most Eastern European countries, the former Soviet Union, most parts of Africa, Asia, and many Spanish-speaking countries the corresponding degree is simply called "doctor" and is distinguished by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. "Dr.med." for doctor medicinæ, which is a title like a master, unlike a PhD, "Dr.rer.nat" for doctor rerum naturalium — Doctor of Science, "Dr. phil." for doctor philosophiæ, "Dr. iur." for doctor iuris, which is not equal to a J.D., etc.).
Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (June 2008)

NorwayMain article: Dr. philos. (Norwegian degree)Norway was one of the first countries to introduce the Doctor of Philosophy degree, inspired by the German university system. The degree doctor philosophiae, abbreviated dr. philos., was first awarded in 1847[10]. The degree was used for all other fields than theology, law and medicine, which had separate degrees: doctor theologiae, doctor juris and doctor medicinae. In the late 20th century new degrees were created in the fields of natural sciences, humanities and social sciences, but it was still possible to obtain the dr. philos. degree in any field. As the dr. philos. degree was one of the four original doctoral degrees and much older than the specific degrees in natural sciences, humanities and social sciences, it was considered more prestigious by some. Both the dr. philos. degree and the other degrees required four years of high-level scientific research which significantly contributed to new knowledge of its field. Most people who started at a doctoral degree had already studied for five or seven years and obtained a Candidate degree (five years) or a Magister degree (seven years).
Following a reform in 2003, all the traditional degrees except dr. philos. were abolished, and replaced by a new doctor of philosophy degree, spelled philosophiae doctor and abbreviated ph.d. The scientific standard of the ph.d. degree is lower, as it in most cases only requires three years of research.
The traditional degree dr. philos., equivalent of four years of scientific research, is still awarded to those who qualify for such a degree without being admitted to an organized doctoral programme.

United Kingdom
A University of Oxford DPhil in full academic dress.AdmissionIn principle, a university is free to admit anyone to a Ph.D. programme; however, in practice, admission is usually conditional on the prospective student having successfully completed an undergraduate degree with at least upper second-class honours, or a postgraduate master's degree.
In addition, Ph.D. students from countries outside the EU/EFTA area are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for certain courses in medicine, mathematics and many natural, engineering and material sciences.[11][12] This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about terrorism and weapons proliferation.[12]

FundingIn the United Kingdom, funding for Ph.D. students is sometimes provided by government-funded Research Councils or the European Social Fund, usually in the form of a tax-free bursary which consists of tuition fees together with a stipend of around GBP 12,940 per year for three years (rising to £14,940 per year in London)[13], whether or not the degree continues for longer. Research Council funding is sometimes 'earmarked' for a particular department or research group, who then allocate it to a chosen student, although in doing so they are generally expected to abide by the usual minimum entry requirements (typically a first degree with upper second class honours, although successful completion of a postgraduate master's degree is usually counted as raising the class of the first degree by one division for these purposes). However, the availability of funding in many disciplines (especially humanities, social studies, and pure science[citation needed] subjects) means that in practice only those with the best research proposals, references and backgrounds are likely to be awarded a studentship. The ESRC (Economic and Social Science Research Council) explicitly state that a 2.1 minimum (or 2.2 plus additional masters degree) is required - no additional marks are given for students with a first class honours or a distinction at masters level.

Since 2002, there has been a move by research councils to fund interdisciplinary doctoral training centres such as MOAC[14] which concentrate on communication between traditional disciplines and an emphasis on transferable skills in addition to research training.
Many students who are not in receipt of external funding may choose to undertake the degree part time, thus reducing the tuition fees, as well as creating free time in which to earn money for subsistence.

Students may also take part in tutoring, work as research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of typically £25–30 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or as a sole means of funding.[15]
CompletionFunding typically lasts for three or four years for PhD students and four years for students earning both their master's degree and PhD degree;[citation needed] there is a usually first-year assessment to remain in the programme and the thesis is submitted at the end of the 3-4 year program. These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students. With special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended for up to four additional years, for a total of seven, but it is rare for students to spend more than four years in the programme.[citation needed] Since the early 1990s, the UK funding councils have adopted a policy of penalising departments where large proportions of students fail to submit their theses in four years (or pro rata equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in subsequent years.[16]
Other doctoratesIn the United Kingdom Ph.D. degrees are distinct from other doctorates, most notably the higher doctorates such as D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) or D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), which are granted on the recommendation of a committee of examiners on the basis of a substantial portfolio of submitted (and usually published) research.
Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorates, most notably in the fields of engineering (Eng.D.), education (Ed.D.), clinical psychology (D.Clin.Psych.),public administration (D.P.A.), business administration (D.B.A.), and music (D.M.A.). These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000-60,000 word thesis component, which collectively is equivalent to that of a Ph.D. degree.

United States
OverviewFurther information: Doctorate#United StatesIn the United States, the Ph.D. degree is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most fields of study. The Ph.D. degree is often misunderstood to be synonymous with the term doctorate. While the Ph.D. degree is the most common doctorate, the term doctorate can refer to any number of doctoral degrees in the United States. The U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Foundation recognize numerous doctoral degrees as "equivalent", and do not discriminate between them.
American students typically undergo a series of three phases in the course of their work toward the Ph.D. degree. The first phase consists of coursework in the student's field of study and requires one to three years to complete. This often is followed by a preliminary, a comprehensive examination, or a series of cumulative examinations where the emphasis is on breadth rather than depth of knowledge. Some Ph.D. programs require the candidate to successfully complete requirements in pedagogy (taking courses on higher level teaching and teaching undergraduate courses) or applied science (e.g., clinical practica and predoctoral clinical internship in Ph.D. programs in clinical or counseling psychology).
Another two to four years are usually required for the composition of a substantial and original contribution to human knowledge in the form of a written dissertation, which in the social sciences and humanities typically ranges from 50 to 450 pages in length. In many cases, depending on the discipline, a dissertation consists of (i) a comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or literary analysis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, sometimes public, by his or her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.
As the Ph.D. degree is often a preliminary step toward a career as a professor, throughout the whole period of study and dissertation research the student may be required or at least offered the opportunity, depending on the university and degree, to teach undergraduate or sometimes graduate courses in relevant subjects.

Admission
There are 282 universities in the United States that award the Ph.D. degree, and those universities vary widely in their criteria for admission, as well as the rigor of their academic programs.[17] Typically, Ph.D. programs require applicants to have a Bachelor's degree in a relevant field (and, in rare cases, a master's degree), reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam specified by the respective program (e.g., GRE, GMAT[18][19]). Specific admissions criteria differ substantially according to university admissions policies and fields of study; some programs in well-regarded research universities (i.e., Research 1 universities) may admit less than five percent of applicants and require an exceptional performance on the GRE along with near-perfect grades, strong support in letters of recommendation, substantial research experience, and academically sophisticated samples of their writing.
Master's degree "in passing"As applicants to many Ph.D. programs are not required to have master's degrees, many programs award a Master of Arts or Master of Science degree "in passing" or "in course" based on the graduate work done in the course of achieving the Ph.D. Students who receive such master's degrees are usually required to complete a certain amount of coursework and a master's thesis. Depending on the specific program, masters-in-passing degrees can be either mandatory or optional. Not all Ph.D. students choose to complete the additional requirements necessary for the M.A. or M.S. if such requirements are not mandated by their programs. Those students will simply obtain the Ph.D. degree at the end of their graduate study.
Some programs also include a Master of Philosophy degree as part of the Ph.D. program.[20] The M.Phil., in those universities that offer it, is usually awarded after the appropriate M.A. or M.S. (as above) is awarded, and the degree candidate has completed all further requirements for the Ph.D. degree (which may include additional language requirements, course credits, teaching experiences, and comprehensive exams) aside from the writing and defense of the dissertation itself. This formalizes the "all but dissertation" (ABD) status used informally by some students, and represents that the student has achieved a higher level of scholarship than the M.A./M.S. would indicate - as such, the M.Phil. is sometimes a helpful credential for those applying for teaching or research posts while completing their dissertation work for the Ph.D. degree itself. [21]
TimeDepending on the specific field of study, completion of a Ph.D. program usually takes four to eight years of study after the Bachelor's Degree; those students who begin a Ph.D. program with a master's degree may complete their Ph.D. degree a year or two sooner.[22] As Ph.D. programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education, there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree. Many U.S. universities have set a ten-year limit for students in Ph.D. programs, or refuse to consider graduate credit older than ten years as counting towards a Ph.D. degree. Similarly, students may be required to re-take the comprehensive exam if they do not defend their dissertations within five years of taking it. Overall, 57% of students who begin a Ph.D. program in the US will complete their degree within ten years, approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13% of students will continue on past ten years.[23]
FundingDoctoral students are usually discouraged from engaging in external employment during the course of their graduate training. As a result, Ph.D. students at U.S. universities typically receive a tuition waiver and some form of annual stipend. The source and amount of funding varies from field to field and university to university. Many U.S. graduate students work as teaching assistants or research assistants while they are doctoral students. Graduate schools increasingly[citation needed] encourage their students to seek outside funding; many are supported by fellowships they obtain for themselves or by their advisers' research grants from government agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. Many Ivy League and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the degree program (if it is short) or for most of it.
Ph.D. candidacyA Ph.D. Candidate (sometimes called Candidate of Philosophy) is a postgraduate student at the doctoral level who has successfully satisfied the requirements for doctoral studies, except for the final thesis or dissertation. As such, a Ph.D. Candidate is sometimes called an "ABD" (All But Dissertation). Although a minor distinction in postgraduate study, achieving Ph.D Candidacy is not without benefit. For example, Ph.D. Candidate status may coincide with an increase in the student's monthly stipend and may make the student eligible for additional employment opportunities.
Models of supervisionAt some universities, there may be training for those wishing to supervise Ph.D. studies. There is now a lot of literature published for academics who wish to do this, such as Delamont, Atkinson and Parry (1997). Indeed, Dinham and Scott (2001) have argued that the worldwide growth in research students has been matched by increase in a number of what they term "how-to" texts for both students and supervisors, citing examples such as Pugh and Phillips (1987). These authors report empirical data on the benefits that Ph.D. students may gain if they publish their work, and note that Ph.D. students are more likely to do this with adequate encouragement from their supervisors.
Wisker (2005) has noticed how research into this field has distinguished between two models of supervision: The technical-rationality model of supervision, emphasising technique; The negotiated order model, being less mechanistic and emphasising fluid and dynamic change in the Ph.D. process. These two models were first distinguished by Acker, Hill and Black (1994; cited in Wisker, 2005). Considerable literature exists on the expectations that supervisors may have of their students (Phillips & Pugh, 1987) and the expectations that students may have of their supervisors (Phillips & Pugh, 1987; Wilkinson, 2005) in the course of Ph.D. supervision. Similar expectations are implied by the Quality Assurance Agency's Code for Supervision (Quality Assurance Agency, 1999; cited in Wilkinson, 2005).

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