Today's Age is the age of unrestrained consciousness and endless experimentations. The world today is a globalize village. Human civilization has seen an unimaginable development of information technology and human consciousness has experienced unforeseen changes in spheres of various activities. The impact of this all is obviously apparent in contemporary Nepali novels There is a discrepancy between the new culture that has evolved out of new changes and the culture that has been in the society for long. A group of people are in favor of new techno-culture and another group of people are worried about their long standing indigenous culture. Shova Bhattarai's novel Antahin Anta (The Endless End) has been set against such mongrelized culture. Swapna Sammelan (An Assembly in a Dream) is another novel worth mentioning in this connection. This is quite a fresh attempt to erase boundaries of time and collect characters from history, from cultural anecdotes and religious books and depict them as the live characters of cyber village. Peter J Karthak's Pratyek Thau, Pryatyek Manchhe (Each Place: A Man), Taranath Sharma's Nepal Dekhi Americasamma (From Nepal to America), Saru Bhakta's Samaya Trasadi (Temporal Tragedy) and Tathakathit (So-Called) too bring to light this cultural displacement.
Deconstructing or rewriting of the successful novels in the past has been another trend. It is believed that a text is never complete. There are numerous gaps to be filled or there are numberless possibilities to develop it into a new form. This notion has come into play in the area of Nepali fiction. Krishna Dharabasi's Sharanarthee (Refugee) is one of the most successful novels to represent this trend. In Sharanarthee Krishna Dahrabasi has drawn a corpus of characters from various sources: characters of different novels and short stories, the writers themselves in the guise of fictitious characters, the charecters drawn from the society and fictitious charecters in true sense. An echo of Roland Barthes's declaration of the death of the author too is heard in it. The characters themselves are conscious that they are being written by the author. They meet and put question to the author. Apart from the play of the characters, there are other experiments too in it. Existence of plural genres in the same work is one of them. A reader comes across various genres in Sharanarthee. History, essay, story and interviews all appear there. Characters appear and disappear throughout the novel. The author has deliberately planned it in order to display Leela (a game). Krishna Dharabasi has become a major Leela writher since the literary movement Leela Lekhan (Leela Writing) was founded by Indra Bahadur Rai some decades ago. The movement uses a queer mixture of oriental philosophy and most recently developed literary theories and principles in other areas of knowledge. Dharabasi's another novel Aadha Baato (Half Way) has opened up new horizon of literary discourse. The volume can traditionally be called his autobiography but he has chosen to call it a novel. Aadha Baato is the story of his own life and the characters are all real people active members of society: poets, artists, politicians, teachers, professors, peasants, businessmen and so on.
A kind of pastiche art can be seen in Dhruba Chandra Gautam's Agnidatta+Agnidatta, one chivalric Agnidatta of the age of Chivalry and the other his modern incarnation. Dhruba Chandra Gautam's colossal output and ceaseless experimentation to come up with something new each time has placed him in the center stage of Nepali fiction. There is an ample blend of fact and fantasy in his novels. Banira Giri's Shabdateet saantanu (Santanu Beyond Words) is not in the prose fit for a novel as such. It is very much like a prose poem.
Nepali novelists are also attempting to explore and establish new centres. They no longer depict the stereotypic characters such as an ideal protagonist, a landlord, a bourgeoisie or a pretty damsel or a protagonist essentially from high caste group. People are not troubled by such elements but by the consumerized culture or some conscious dark force. Khagendra Sangraula's Junkiriko Sangeet (Music of the Fireflies) and Pradeep Nepal's Ekkaisau Shataabdiki Sumnima (Twenty First Century Sumnima ) seek to delve into such collapsing social institutions and emerging new values. Saru Bhakta's Paagal Basti (Lunatics' Colony), Taruni Kheti (Maid Farming), Samaya Trasadi and Chuli (The Peak) explore new centers.
Friday, October 31, 2008
Contemporary Nepali Literature: Lyrical Poems (Ghazals and Lyrics)
Lyric as a distinct genre has a history of about five decades whereas ghazal has a history of over a century. Lyric existed as folk lore and religious hymns in the first half of the century. Lyric emerged as a literary genre in the fifties. Today's lyrics sing not only of love and betrayal but also of social life and human suffering. Lyricists are conscious enough to imbue their lyrics with literary colors and contents. A trend of writing lyrics not only to be sung but also to be read has evolved in Nepali literature. Publication of the anthology of lyrics is on the rise. The noted contemporary lyricists are Kiran Kharel, Ratnashamser Thapa, Prem Binod Nandan, Yadav Kharel, Ishwor Ballaw, Kali Prasad Rijal, Kshetra Pratap Adhikari, Ram Man Trishit, Rajendra Thapa, Ganesh Rasik, Hiraya Bhojpure, Daibagya raj Neupane, Bhim Birag, Krishna Prasad Parajuli, Shrawan Mukarung, Sashwat Parajuli, Suman Pokhrel etc.
Ghazal has been the most vibrant area of contemporary literary scene. This genre has attracted an amazing number of literary artists from the new generation although certain structural rules are to be observed while composing it. This is quite positive sign for Nepali ghazal. Having made a long journey from Motiram Bhatta to Upendra Bahadur Jigar to Bund Rana, Gyanuwakar Poudel, Manu Brajaki, Lalijan Rawal and from them to the new generation, Nepali ghazal has gained a shape and artistry. Love and praise of beauty of the beloved and also of nature are the classic and most suited themes of ghazal. Apart from them ghazal writers today also use ghazal as a vehicle for satire on and criticism of the evil side of human nature and society. One most important aspect to be noted here is that ghazals are pouring into this field but majority of those trying hand at it lack consciousness to impart quality that includes choice of soft words and musicality in their ghazals. This quality is essentially sought in the genre like this. There are some established names who have been writing ghazals with this sense in mind. Such writers are Bund Rana, Lalizan Rawal, Gyanuwakar Poudel, Mun Poudel, Pramod Snehi, Manu Brajaki, Shrestha Piya Patthar, Dhruba Madhikarmi, Jainendra Jeewan, Manu Manjil, Bibas Pokhrel, Shreedhar Kattel etc.
OTHER GENRES
There are other equally important and popular genres of prose one should not skip while discussing Nepali literature. Travel writing, which is one of them, is very popular and widely written in Nepal. Writers like Taranath Sharma, Ramesh Vikal, Ghanashyam Rajkarnikar, Madan Mani Dikshit, Shreekrishna Gautam and Manjul have written great works of travelogue. Bhisma Upreti, Yubaraj Nayaghare, Rashmishekhar, Gyanendra Bibas are some names from the younger generation.
Biography and literature for children demand separate space. I have not incorporated them in this brief write up. It is better to cover them in separate writing.
Ghazal has been the most vibrant area of contemporary literary scene. This genre has attracted an amazing number of literary artists from the new generation although certain structural rules are to be observed while composing it. This is quite positive sign for Nepali ghazal. Having made a long journey from Motiram Bhatta to Upendra Bahadur Jigar to Bund Rana, Gyanuwakar Poudel, Manu Brajaki, Lalijan Rawal and from them to the new generation, Nepali ghazal has gained a shape and artistry. Love and praise of beauty of the beloved and also of nature are the classic and most suited themes of ghazal. Apart from them ghazal writers today also use ghazal as a vehicle for satire on and criticism of the evil side of human nature and society. One most important aspect to be noted here is that ghazals are pouring into this field but majority of those trying hand at it lack consciousness to impart quality that includes choice of soft words and musicality in their ghazals. This quality is essentially sought in the genre like this. There are some established names who have been writing ghazals with this sense in mind. Such writers are Bund Rana, Lalizan Rawal, Gyanuwakar Poudel, Mun Poudel, Pramod Snehi, Manu Brajaki, Shrestha Piya Patthar, Dhruba Madhikarmi, Jainendra Jeewan, Manu Manjil, Bibas Pokhrel, Shreedhar Kattel etc.
OTHER GENRES
There are other equally important and popular genres of prose one should not skip while discussing Nepali literature. Travel writing, which is one of them, is very popular and widely written in Nepal. Writers like Taranath Sharma, Ramesh Vikal, Ghanashyam Rajkarnikar, Madan Mani Dikshit, Shreekrishna Gautam and Manjul have written great works of travelogue. Bhisma Upreti, Yubaraj Nayaghare, Rashmishekhar, Gyanendra Bibas are some names from the younger generation.
Biography and literature for children demand separate space. I have not incorporated them in this brief write up. It is better to cover them in separate writing.
Contemporary Nepali Literature: Fiction -- the Essay
Modern trends in Nepali essay, like short story and poetry, began sixty years ago. Laxmi Prasad Devkota was the first true writer of modern essays. Later Shankar Lamichhane enriched Nepali essays with completely new style, feeling and strength. Krishna Chandra Singh Pradhan and Taranath Sharma too contributed substantially to this field. Another trend that became equally popular was a trend of writing humorous and satirical essays. Keshab Raj Pindali and Bhairab Aryal wrote many successful essays. They were witty enough in their writing to maintain balance between humor and their attack on social evils.
Contemporary Nepali essays, like other genres, are not aloof from the trends of the time. There is an eagerness to grasp new sentiment and novelty and to add new dimension in this area too. These essays reflect the uncertainty and chaos prevailing in the country. As per the number of essayists the number is not as big as that of the poets and short story writers. Yet there are a number of writers who have written great essays. Most of today's essays have happened to be satiric. The satire comes up in the writer's mind because he is bitterly hurt by the bizarre anomaly that exists in the socio political scenario of our country. It is natural for the writers to be affected by it because politics influences every part of state. Besides, there are some writers who explore other ever fresh subtle aspects of life. The names of these essayists include Ram Mani Rshal, Kishor Nepal, Banira Giri, Durga Prasad Bhandari, Lila Singh Darna, Abhi Subedi, Manuj Babu Mishra, Dhanus Chandra Gautam, Madhav Pokhrel, Manjul, Rajendra subedi, Sri Om Shrestha Rodan, Krishna Dharabasi, Gyanendra Biwas, Yubraj Nayaghare, Bhishma Upreti etc.
Contemporary Nepali essays, like other genres, are not aloof from the trends of the time. There is an eagerness to grasp new sentiment and novelty and to add new dimension in this area too. These essays reflect the uncertainty and chaos prevailing in the country. As per the number of essayists the number is not as big as that of the poets and short story writers. Yet there are a number of writers who have written great essays. Most of today's essays have happened to be satiric. The satire comes up in the writer's mind because he is bitterly hurt by the bizarre anomaly that exists in the socio political scenario of our country. It is natural for the writers to be affected by it because politics influences every part of state. Besides, there are some writers who explore other ever fresh subtle aspects of life. The names of these essayists include Ram Mani Rshal, Kishor Nepal, Banira Giri, Durga Prasad Bhandari, Lila Singh Darna, Abhi Subedi, Manuj Babu Mishra, Dhanus Chandra Gautam, Madhav Pokhrel, Manjul, Rajendra subedi, Sri Om Shrestha Rodan, Krishna Dharabasi, Gyanendra Biwas, Yubraj Nayaghare, Bhishma Upreti etc.
Contemporary Nepali Literature: Fiction -- the Short Story
Nepali short story has achieved its present state of development in shorter time than other genres. This area of literature has already been enriched by a number of classic world-class short stories. The contribution of the figures such as Guru Prasad Mainali, Pushkar Samser Rana, Posan Pande, Indra Bahadur Rai, Biseswor Prasad Koirala, Bhimnidhi Tiwari, Bhawani Bhikshu, Paarizaat can hardly be exaggerated. The short story writers like Ramesh Bikal, Parashu Pradhan, Sanat Regmi, Dhruba Sapkota, Shailendra Sakar, Nayan Raj Pandey, Benju Sharma, Sita Pandey and their peers are those well esteemed writers who join the past with the present. These writers have written stories of artistic intent with themes related to Nepal and Nepali's cultural life and have made short stories even popular among Nepali people.
In the '60s Nepali stories saw a change in their characterization and tone. It was the most influential movement Teshro Aayam (The Third Dimension) that has its impact on short stories too. Indra Bahadur Rai, one of the trios to launch the movement is a very innovative short story writer. Although the Third Dimension triggered an intellectual debate in literary circles and provided a stimulus to Nepali literature, it could not produce a generation to follow it. So its impact gradually wore off. Indra Bahadur Rai has come up with Leela Lekhan (Leela Writing). It's a literary theory to approach literary works and a philosophy in itself. His Kathputaliko Man (The Heart of a Puppet) is the first collection of short stories based on Leela Lekhan. Some writers are putting it into their works successfully.
Realism has been the sustained base of Nepali short stories from the past to the present. Other trends include progressive ideology, psychological realism and experimentalism. Leela lekhan and other post modernist experiments operative in the latest decade seem to shake realism. Writers are breaking away from the established norms and values and are seeking to explore new heights and new horizons. This group of writers has been providing Nepali readers with thoroughly new texts. Village life, life in Kathmandu and Darjeeling, the lives of women in a male-dominated society, caste, class, and ethnic relations, the Gurkha soldier, poverty, corruption and most recently the impact of technological development on life have been the recurring themes of Nepali short stories.
In the '60s Nepali stories saw a change in their characterization and tone. It was the most influential movement Teshro Aayam (The Third Dimension) that has its impact on short stories too. Indra Bahadur Rai, one of the trios to launch the movement is a very innovative short story writer. Although the Third Dimension triggered an intellectual debate in literary circles and provided a stimulus to Nepali literature, it could not produce a generation to follow it. So its impact gradually wore off. Indra Bahadur Rai has come up with Leela Lekhan (Leela Writing). It's a literary theory to approach literary works and a philosophy in itself. His Kathputaliko Man (The Heart of a Puppet) is the first collection of short stories based on Leela Lekhan. Some writers are putting it into their works successfully.
Realism has been the sustained base of Nepali short stories from the past to the present. Other trends include progressive ideology, psychological realism and experimentalism. Leela lekhan and other post modernist experiments operative in the latest decade seem to shake realism. Writers are breaking away from the established norms and values and are seeking to explore new heights and new horizons. This group of writers has been providing Nepali readers with thoroughly new texts. Village life, life in Kathmandu and Darjeeling, the lives of women in a male-dominated society, caste, class, and ethnic relations, the Gurkha soldier, poverty, corruption and most recently the impact of technological development on life have been the recurring themes of Nepali short stories.
Contemporary Nepali Literature: Drama and Theater
Drama is an old genre both in the West and the East. Dramas used to be written in Sanskrit in ancient times in the East and in Greek in the West. But in Nepali literature dramas appeared quite late. During Bir Shamser's reign Darbar theatre was established in 1893, and dramas had an opportunity to open its eyes. Balkrishna Sama (1902-1981), who wrote 17 plays in Shakespearean style, breathed life into Nepali drama. He lifted Nepali dramas to new height with social background, philosophical depth, logicality and poetic dialogues. Bhim Nidhi Tiwari used commoners' language and Gopal Prasad Rimal provided a focus on realism. The element that makes modern dramas different from the earlier ones is their use of psychoanalysis.
In contemporary times the pace of drama writing has slackened. A small number of writers are committed to dramatic writing. There may be many reasons behind it. One most apparent reason is the lack of an established culture of theatre. A few plays were staged successfully in the past but they did not produce a dramkatic culture in Nepal. Staging of Dr. Abhi Subedi's drama last year was a welcome success. It was a remarkable event and has instilled hope in the direction of renovation of drama and culture of theatre.
Yet there are writers who have been actively involved in it and contributing powerful plays for years. The dramas of the present times are simple and at the same time full of intellect, experimental and at the same time purposeful and conscious. Sometimes the themes are conveyed in realistic and satiric way and at other times through the use of humanized fantasy. Experiment in expression has been the latest trend of the Nepali drama. Mohan Raj Sharma, Ashesh Mala, Saru Bhakta, Gopal Pariajuli, Abinash Shrestha, Dhruba Chandra Gautam, Abhi Subedi, Roshan thapa Nirab etc. are some of the major writers of contemporary Nepali Drama.
In contemporary times the pace of drama writing has slackened. A small number of writers are committed to dramatic writing. There may be many reasons behind it. One most apparent reason is the lack of an established culture of theatre. A few plays were staged successfully in the past but they did not produce a dramkatic culture in Nepal. Staging of Dr. Abhi Subedi's drama last year was a welcome success. It was a remarkable event and has instilled hope in the direction of renovation of drama and culture of theatre.
Yet there are writers who have been actively involved in it and contributing powerful plays for years. The dramas of the present times are simple and at the same time full of intellect, experimental and at the same time purposeful and conscious. Sometimes the themes are conveyed in realistic and satiric way and at other times through the use of humanized fantasy. Experiment in expression has been the latest trend of the Nepali drama. Mohan Raj Sharma, Ashesh Mala, Saru Bhakta, Gopal Pariajuli, Abinash Shrestha, Dhruba Chandra Gautam, Abhi Subedi, Roshan thapa Nirab etc. are some of the major writers of contemporary Nepali Drama.
Contemporary Nepali Literature: Poetry
A distinction can be made between the group of writers and poets who were the noted figures of the modern times and still active in their literary output and another group of emerging new generation who are striving to establish a new trend of writing poetry. Nepali poetry has come a long way since Gopal Prasad Rimal (1918-1973) rescued it from the bondage of the past, writing prose poems dealing with contemporary problems and his successor Bhupi Sherchan made prose poetry popular among the masses. A few poets around their time led Nepali poetry to obscurity in the and distanced it from Nepali social life. Poets like Bashu Shashi, Krishna Bhusan Bal, Shailendra Sakar, Parizat, Sharada Sharma, Bishnu Bibhu Ghimire, Jeevan Aacharya, Meen Bahadur Bista, Manju Kanchuli, Shyamal and Bibas Pokhrel pulled Nepali poetry from the quagmire of obscurity and proved it a beautiful creation with subtle human feelings and concern towards social unrest. Some poets among them are actively creative till the date. So the contemporary scene of Nepali poetry is the continuation of the past on the one hand while on the other a journey to the new direction.
The newly emerging generation of poets includes Ramesh Shrestha, Bhisma Upreti, Shrawan Mukarung, Biplov Dhakal, Ramesh Kshitiz, Momila, Manu Manjil, Upendra Subba, Hangyung Agyat, Jyoti Jungle, R. M. Dangol, Byakul Pathak, Mukul Dahal and the like. They have several challenges in front of them. First they are trying to find, stylistically as well as thematically, a new trend of expression in their poetry. Next they are attempting to combat and break away from the hypocritical tradition that has eclipsed the literary sky. A host of literary artists are after so called power and have begun to believe more in the amount of sycophancy they render than in the quality of their writing. This has been rather negative enforcement and has misled new writers. The new generation of genuine poets and writers has to fight it tooth and nail.
The contemporary poets draw themes of poetry from their wounded sensibility caused by bloody insurgency at home. Their voice is that of discontentment, depression, hopelessness and satire and an ultimate desire for peace. Stylistically today's poetry has departed radically from the trend of the 60s that was full of mythological references and apparently meaningless imagery. The contemporary poets explore and use personal imagery and symbols picked up from the world around them.
The newly emerging generation of poets includes Ramesh Shrestha, Bhisma Upreti, Shrawan Mukarung, Biplov Dhakal, Ramesh Kshitiz, Momila, Manu Manjil, Upendra Subba, Hangyung Agyat, Jyoti Jungle, R. M. Dangol, Byakul Pathak, Mukul Dahal and the like. They have several challenges in front of them. First they are trying to find, stylistically as well as thematically, a new trend of expression in their poetry. Next they are attempting to combat and break away from the hypocritical tradition that has eclipsed the literary sky. A host of literary artists are after so called power and have begun to believe more in the amount of sycophancy they render than in the quality of their writing. This has been rather negative enforcement and has misled new writers. The new generation of genuine poets and writers has to fight it tooth and nail.
The contemporary poets draw themes of poetry from their wounded sensibility caused by bloody insurgency at home. Their voice is that of discontentment, depression, hopelessness and satire and an ultimate desire for peace. Stylistically today's poetry has departed radically from the trend of the 60s that was full of mythological references and apparently meaningless imagery. The contemporary poets explore and use personal imagery and symbols picked up from the world around them.
Contemporary Nepali Literature: A Bird's Eye View -- Historical Background
This essay is part one of the author's "Contemporary Nepali Literature: A Bird's Eye View."
Having come through the history of over a century, Nepali literature stands by itself as a literature that offers distinct colors and tastes of this Shangri-La kingdom. It is a continuation from the past to the present. So, Nepali literature, like other areas of studies, cannot be viewed in isolation. The past has always influenced the present and the present has always sought to break away from the bondage of the past.
The first written literary work in Nepali was Bhanubhakta's Ramayana (1883). The publication of the book created a stir in the Nepali society and marked the end of the ancient period and the beginning of the medieval. Because of the use of simple language and the rhythm easy to be picked by the common people, the Ramayana attained lasting popularity in Nepali society. The Medieval period to some extent was free from religious dominance of Bhaktikaal (Devotional Period). The period was so much bent on Shringaar (Romance). But the mythological tradition persisted through these times too. It saw an extreme of shringaar with the publication of Lekhnath Poudel's Suktisindhu (1917) which was banned by the ruling Ranas. This was an important event that forced Nepali literature to turn to society and social life.
The modernists' tone was most apparently set after the advent of democracy in 1951 although its sparks were already in view right from the beginning of 1920s. Writers began to study new trends of literature in the West and write under their influence. Various literary movements including Boot Polish Aandolan ( Boot Polish Movement), Sadak Kabita Kranti (Street Poetry Revolution), Aswikrit Jamaat Ko Kabita (Poetry of the Discarded Community), Ralpha Aandolan (Ralpha Movement), Bhok Kabita (Poetry out of Hunger) and Teshro Aayam (The Third Dimension) that appeared in the Nepali literary scene substantially contributed to the modern Nepali literature. All these literary movements together laid a concrete base for the literature of the postmodern times. In this write-up, I have made an attempt to cast a humble and hurried glance at the Nepali literature of the post modern times. So it offers only a superficial study, not an in-depth and erudite one.
Having come through the history of over a century, Nepali literature stands by itself as a literature that offers distinct colors and tastes of this Shangri-La kingdom. It is a continuation from the past to the present. So, Nepali literature, like other areas of studies, cannot be viewed in isolation. The past has always influenced the present and the present has always sought to break away from the bondage of the past.
The first written literary work in Nepali was Bhanubhakta's Ramayana (1883). The publication of the book created a stir in the Nepali society and marked the end of the ancient period and the beginning of the medieval. Because of the use of simple language and the rhythm easy to be picked by the common people, the Ramayana attained lasting popularity in Nepali society. The Medieval period to some extent was free from religious dominance of Bhaktikaal (Devotional Period). The period was so much bent on Shringaar (Romance). But the mythological tradition persisted through these times too. It saw an extreme of shringaar with the publication of Lekhnath Poudel's Suktisindhu (1917) which was banned by the ruling Ranas. This was an important event that forced Nepali literature to turn to society and social life.
The modernists' tone was most apparently set after the advent of democracy in 1951 although its sparks were already in view right from the beginning of 1920s. Writers began to study new trends of literature in the West and write under their influence. Various literary movements including Boot Polish Aandolan ( Boot Polish Movement), Sadak Kabita Kranti (Street Poetry Revolution), Aswikrit Jamaat Ko Kabita (Poetry of the Discarded Community), Ralpha Aandolan (Ralpha Movement), Bhok Kabita (Poetry out of Hunger) and Teshro Aayam (The Third Dimension) that appeared in the Nepali literary scene substantially contributed to the modern Nepali literature. All these literary movements together laid a concrete base for the literature of the postmodern times. In this write-up, I have made an attempt to cast a humble and hurried glance at the Nepali literature of the post modern times. So it offers only a superficial study, not an in-depth and erudite one.
Saturday, October 25, 2008
Nepal
Nepal (Nepali: नेपाल [neˈpaːl] (help·info)) is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the north and by India to the south, east and west. The Himalaya mountain range runs across Nep
al's northern and western parts, and eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including the highest, Mount Everest, are within its territory.Historically, Nepal had many small kingdoms and the modern state was formed with the Unification of Nepal by Prithvi Narayan Shah on December 21, 1768. Prior to 2006, Nepal was a kingdom. Nepal is now a federal democratic republic.[3] Its recent history has involved struggles for democratic government with periods of direct monarchic rule. From 1996 until 2006, Nepal suffered from a Civil War between government forces and guerrillas of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist).
On December 28, 2007, the Interim Parliament passed a bill and declared Nepal to be a Federal Democratic Republic. The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly officially implemented that declaration on May 28, 2008.
Nepal is a multi-cultural, multi-linguistic and multi religious country. For a relatively small country, Nepal has a diverse landscape, ranging from the humid Terai plains in the south to the mountainous Himalayas in the north, which makes it a major tourist destination. Hinduism is practiced by a huge majority of the people, but the country also has a strong Buddhist tradition; Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha Siddhartha Gautama is located in the Terai, one of the three regions of Nepal.
The capital Kathmandu is the largest city in the country. The official language is Nepali and the state currency is the Nepalese Rupee (NPR). Nepal's flag is the only national flag in the world that is non-quadrilateral in shape. The blue border on the flag of Nepal signifies peace, red stands for victory in war or courage. It is also color of the rhododendron, the national flower of Nepal. While the curved moon is symbol of peace and calm nature of Nepalese, the sun represents the aggressiveness of Nepalese warriors.
Etymology
Nepal Bhasa originThe word “Nepal” is believed by scholars to be derived from the word “Nepa:” which refers to the Newar Kingdom, the present day Kathmandu Valley. With Sanskritization, the Newar word Nepa became Nepal.[4] The Newars of present day Nepal, refer to all the inhabitants of Kathmandu valley and its peripheries (called "Nepa:") before the advent of Shah dynasty. The Nepal Sambat calendar, named after this Newar kingdom and devised 1100 years ago, is still one of the major calendars used in Nepal and testifies to its antiquity.
Ne MuniMany historians and local traditions say that a Hindu sage named "Ne" established himself at the valley of Kathmandu during prehistoric times and that the word "Nepal" came into existence as the place protected ("pala" in Sanskrit) by the sage "Ne". The etymology of the name Nepal means, "the country looked after by Ne".[5]
He used to perform religious ceremonies at Teku, the confluence of the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers.[6] He is said by legend to have selected a pious cowherd to be the first of the many kings of the Gopala Dynasty.[5] These rulers are said to have ruled Nepal for over 500 years.[7] He selected Bhuktaman to be the first king in the line of the Gopal (Cowherd) Dynasty.[6] The Gopal dynasty ruled for 621 years. Yakshya Gupta was the last king of this dynasty. However,this mythology can be challenged as no such name as Ne exists in Nepali or other Sanskrit derived languages.
According to Skanda Purana, a rishi called "Ne" or "Nemuni" used to live in Himalaya.[8] In the Pashupati Purana, he is mentioned as a saint and a protector.[9] He is said to have practiced penance at the Bagmati and Kesavati rivers[10] and to have taught his doctrines there too.[5]
LanguageAll the languages spoken in Nepal are national languages.[11] Nepali is the official language of Nepal,with almost 60 percent of the population speaking it.[12] The language which is believed to be the closest derivation from Sanskrit, was originally called Khaskura, but became known as Nepali during the 20th century.[13] However, all languages spoken in Nepal can be used for official purposes and documentation irrespective of what the official language is.
Dolpa District
Dolpa District is one of the five districts of Karnali Zone in Nepal - a landlocked country of Sout Asia. The district, with Dunai as its district headquarters, covers an area of 7,889km² and has a population (2001) of 29,545.
Dolpa is the largest district of Nepal covering 5.36% of total landmass of the country. Located between 28°24’ N - 29°43’ N latitude, and 82°24’ E - 83°38’ E longitude, the elevation in Dolpa ranges from 1,525 to 7,625 meters above sea level. The district borders Tibet ( China) in the north and northeast, Jumla and Mugu districts of Karnali in the west, Myagdi, Jajarkot and Rukum in the south and Mustang in the East.
A large portion of the district is protected by Shey Phoksundo National Park. The name is derived from a 12th century Shey Monastery and the deepest lake in Nepal, the Phoksundo Lake, both of which lie in the district. The park protects endangered animals like the snow leopard, musk deer and the tibetan wolf. Shey Phoksundo is the largest and the only trans-Himalayan National Park in Nepal.
It is also one of the two districts that lie beyond the Himalaya or the trans-Himalaya,Mustang being the other.
Dolpa region is distant region of Nepal and the central point of this area is Shey Phoksumdo National Park. The east and south of dolpa is surrounded by the Dhaulagiri and Churen Himal ranges and to the west by Jumla district. Trekking to Lower Dolpa offer you the remarkable and advisable experience of lifetime. The notable figure seen here are clean and tidy snowy peaks, ancient and remote villages, rich wildlife, reliable Buddhist monastery and wonderful lakes. The people of this area are simple and warm-hearted with enthralling culture and traditions. The cultural traditions of this area are basically linked with Tibetan.
Trekking into this dolpa region presents an exposure to the High & remote Himalayan valleys, resembling the Tibetan highlands. The main highlight of this dolpa trekking includes “Shey Phoksundo National Park” which is the major National Parks of Nepal. “Shey Phoksundo Lake” is another famous factor of this region. The lake is totally free of aqua life, which the crystal waters clearly explain. Surrounded by rock, forests, and snow- capped peaks, the area has been described as one of the World's “Natural Hidden Wonders”.
The dolpa trekking starts at “Juphal” and follows the track to “Dunai”, then continue to “Tarakot”, way up to “Bang la” Camp, the uppermost point of this dolpa trekking, after passing through the “Sanu Bheri” village, we then descend to the good-looking “Phoksundo” Lake, which is a piece of the “Shey Phoksundo National Park”.
The dolpa district located totally on the trans-Himalayan area of Nepal and borders Mustang on the east, Myagdi, Rukum and Jajarkot in the south and Jumla and Mugu districts on the west, and the Tibet region of China on the north.
The district distances an altitudinal range of over 5,000 meters from a little over 1,500 meters at Tribeni in Kalika VDC to 7,381 meters at the peak of Churen Himal. Kanjiroba (6221m), Mukot (6638m) and Putha Hiunchuli (7246m) are other renowned peaks.
Physiographical the smaller ranges of the Great Himalayas comprise the southern border of the district. Between these and the border mountain ranges of Gautam Himal and Kanti Himal to the north Dolpa district is a labyrinth of often wide glacial valleys and ridges. Kanjiroba Himal and Kagmara Lekh running north-west to south-east separate the valleys of the Jagdula in the west with the rest of the district.
Dolpa occupy 7889 sq. km. area and it’s headquarters is dunai and . Approximately dolpa’s population is 29545. Most of the people are hindu (60%) , Buddhist(40%) – including 505% ancient Bonpo Religion . Dolpa region is in the hight of 1525 m from sea level up to 7754 variation. Dolpa;s major occupation is agriculture (79.5%) and service (2%) . Dolpa’s climate is cold between 7000 – 13000 feet.
Dolpa is the largest district of Nepal covering 5.36% of total landmass of the country. Located between 28°24’ N - 29°43’ N latitude, and 82°24’ E - 83°38’ E longitude, the elevation in Dolpa ranges from 1,525 to 7,625 meters above sea level. The district borders Tibet ( China) in the north and northeast, Jumla and Mugu districts of Karnali in the west, Myagdi, Jajarkot and Rukum in the south and Mustang in the East.
A large portion of the district is protected by Shey Phoksundo National Park. The name is derived from a 12th century Shey Monastery and the deepest lake in Nepal, the Phoksundo Lake, both of which lie in the district. The park protects endangered animals like the snow leopard, musk deer and the tibetan wolf. Shey Phoksundo is the largest and the only trans-Himalayan National Park in Nepal.
It is also one of the two districts that lie beyond the Himalaya or the trans-Himalaya,Mustang being the other.
Dolpa region is distant region of Nepal and the central point of this area is Shey Phoksumdo National Park. The east and south of dolpa is surrounded by the Dhaulagiri and Churen Himal ranges and to the west by Jumla district. Trekking to Lower Dolpa offer you the remarkable and advisable experience of lifetime. The notable figure seen here are clean and tidy snowy peaks, ancient and remote villages, rich wildlife, reliable Buddhist monastery and wonderful lakes. The people of this area are simple and warm-hearted with enthralling culture and traditions. The cultural traditions of this area are basically linked with Tibetan.
Trekking into this dolpa region presents an exposure to the High & remote Himalayan valleys, resembling the Tibetan highlands. The main highlight of this dolpa trekking includes “Shey Phoksundo National Park” which is the major National Parks of Nepal. “Shey Phoksundo Lake” is another famous factor of this region. The lake is totally free of aqua life, which the crystal waters clearly explain. Surrounded by rock, forests, and snow- capped peaks, the area has been described as one of the World's “Natural Hidden Wonders”.
The dolpa trekking starts at “Juphal” and follows the track to “Dunai”, then continue to “Tarakot”, way up to “Bang la” Camp, the uppermost point of this dolpa trekking, after passing through the “Sanu Bheri” village, we then descend to the good-looking “Phoksundo” Lake, which is a piece of the “Shey Phoksundo National Park”.
The dolpa district located totally on the trans-Himalayan area of Nepal and borders Mustang on the east, Myagdi, Rukum and Jajarkot in the south and Jumla and Mugu districts on the west, and the Tibet region of China on the north.
The district distances an altitudinal range of over 5,000 meters from a little over 1,500 meters at Tribeni in Kalika VDC to 7,381 meters at the peak of Churen Himal. Kanjiroba (6221m), Mukot (6638m) and Putha Hiunchuli (7246m) are other renowned peaks.
Physiographical the smaller ranges of the Great Himalayas comprise the southern border of the district. Between these and the border mountain ranges of Gautam Himal and Kanti Himal to the north Dolpa district is a labyrinth of often wide glacial valleys and ridges. Kanjiroba Himal and Kagmara Lekh running north-west to south-east separate the valleys of the Jagdula in the west with the rest of the district.
Dolpa occupy 7889 sq. km. area and it’s headquarters is dunai and . Approximately dolpa’s population is 29545. Most of the people are hindu (60%) , Buddhist(40%) – including 505% ancient Bonpo Religion . Dolpa region is in the hight of 1525 m from sea level up to 7754 variation. Dolpa;s major occupation is agriculture (79.5%) and service (2%) . Dolpa’s climate is cold between 7000 – 13000 feet.
Area
7,889 km²
Population (2001)
7,889 km²
Population (2001)
• Density-29,545 • /km²
Time zone -NPT (UTC+5:45)
Time zone -NPT (UTC+5:45)
Wednesday, October 22, 2008
Shropshire Hills AONB
The Shropshire Hills area is designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), in the English county of Shropshire, close to its border with Wales. Designated in 1958[1], the area encompasses 802 square kilometres (310 sq mi) of land primarily in the South Shropshire district. The A49 road and 
Welsh Marches Railway Line bisects the area north-south, passing through or near Shrewsbury, Church Stretton, Craven Arms and Ludlow.
Welsh Marches Railway Line bisects the area north-south, passing through or near Shrewsbury, Church Stretton, Craven Arms and Ludlow.Hills
The Shropshire Hills, located in the Welsh Marches, are relatively high, with the highest point in the county, Brown Clee Hill, near Ludlow, towering to a height of 540 metres (1,772 ft). This gives Shropshire the 13th tallest hill per county in England. Titterstone Clee Hill, part of the Clee Hills, is of a similar height to Brown Clee, at 533 metres (1,749 ft), making it the third largest hill. The Stiperstones are the second largest in the county, at 536 metres (1,759 ft), and are notable for their tors of quartzite; particularly notable are Devil's Chair (SO368991) and Shepherd's Rock (SO373998).
More accessible hills are the Long Mynd, which covers an area of 5,436 acres (8½ square miles) and peaking at Pole Bank at a height of 516 metres (1,693 feet), is located near Church Stretton. It contains Carding Mill Valley, a popular recreational area which was developed as a honeypot to draw tourists away from the more sensitive/protected areas of the Mynd. The Wrekin (407 metres (1,335 ft)), located in the far northeastern panhandle of the AONB, is an extremely popular hill with a well-used trail. Located near to Wellington, its position close to the major population centres of Shropshire, and good transport links (A5/M54) make it easy to access. Ercall Hill, a notable geological site, is located just to the north of The Wrekin.
Other prominent hills include Corndon Hill, the summit of which is in Wales, and Lyth Hill, which is located to the south of Shrewsbury near Bayston Hill.
More accessible hills are the Long Mynd, which covers an area of 5,436 acres (8½ square miles) and peaking at Pole Bank at a height of 516 metres (1,693 feet), is located near Church Stretton. It contains Carding Mill Valley, a popular recreational area which was developed as a honeypot to draw tourists away from the more sensitive/protected areas of the Mynd. The Wrekin (407 metres (1,335 ft)), located in the far northeastern panhandle of the AONB, is an extremely popular hill with a well-used trail. Located near to Wellington, its position close to the major population centres of Shropshire, and good transport links (A5/M54) make it easy to access. Ercall Hill, a notable geological site, is located just to the north of The Wrekin.
Other prominent hills include Corndon Hill, the summit of which is in Wales, and Lyth Hill, which is located to the south of Shrewsbury near Bayston Hill.
Towns & Villages
The largest town within the AONB is Church Stretton (sometimes known as "Little Switzerland"), which has a population of approximately 4,000. Recently, the restrictions placed on the town by being within the AONB has halted expansion of the town and created a local housing shortage.
Development has shifted south to Craven Arms, which is located just outside the development restriction boundaries, and is where the Shropshire Hills AONB Partnership is based.
Clun is a small town of 1,000 located in the east, in the Clun Valley, and is the only other town (apart from Church Stretton) within the boundaries of the AONB.
Ludlow is regionally the largest town, and is the district capital of South Shropshire which the Shropshire Hills are primarily within.
Bishop's Castle is a small town of approximately 1,500, which is located in a niche near the Welsh border to the west. Bucknell is a small village in the south.
Development has shifted south to Craven Arms, which is located just outside the development restriction boundaries, and is where the Shropshire Hills AONB Partnership is based.
Clun is a small town of 1,000 located in the east, in the Clun Valley, and is the only other town (apart from Church Stretton) within the boundaries of the AONB.
Ludlow is regionally the largest town, and is the district capital of South Shropshire which the Shropshire Hills are primarily within.
Bishop's Castle is a small town of approximately 1,500, which is located in a niche near the Welsh border to the west. Bucknell is a small village in the south.
Local Authorities
Approximately 65% of the South Shropshire district is occupied by the AONB. Extremities of the AONB are located in Telford & Wrekin (primarily the The Wrekin hill), Bridgnorth and Shrewsbury & Atcham (South-Western Stiperstones area).
Monday, October 20, 2008
Chitwan National Park
Chitwan National Park (formerly called "Royal Chitwan National Park(RCNP)" )(CNP), covering an area of 932 km², is the oldest national park of Nepal. Established in 1973, it was granted the status of a World Heritage Site in 1984. The RCNP is located at subtropical inner Terai lowlands of South-Central Nepal in Chitwan district, 200km away from capital Kathmandu.
The park is rich in flora and fauna, which include one of the last populations of single-horned Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and the Bengal tiger Panthera tigris tigris. The area used to be known as "Four Mile Forest" (चार कोसे झाडी). It was a place for big game hunting and until 1951 it was a hunting reserve. At the park there is canoeing, elephant rides, and guided jungle walks.
Adjacent to the National Park in the east is the Parsa Wildlife Reserve (49.900 ha) and further east the Bara Hunting Reserve (25.900 ha). In the south the Chitwan is contiguous with the Indian Valmiki Tiger Reserve. The vegetation consits mainly of moist deciduous forests, with the sal as dominating tree species. In the Churia Hills pine trees predominate. On the floodplains of the large Rivers, by name the Rapti, the Reu and the Narayani there are large areas covered with Elephant grass alternating with riverine Forests mainly composed of Simal, Khair and Sisau trees.
The Chitwan National Park is home to at least 43 species of mammals, 450 species of birds, and 45 species of amphibians and reptiles. Elephants and Indian rhinos are the largest species found in the park, but a lot of other large herbivores are found in the park, gaur, sambar deer, Indian muntjac, chital, hog deer, mainland serow, chousingha and wild boar. Three large predator species, tigers, leopards, dholes prey on them and carrion eaters like striped hyenas are also found. Sloth bears are among the main attractions of the Park. Smaller carivore species are golden jackal, yellow-throated marten, ratel, smooth coated otter, small Indian civet, large Indian civet, spotted linsang, common palm civet, binturong, small Indian mongoose, Indian grey mongoose, crab-eating mongose, leopard cat, marbled cat and fishing cat. Further mammal species found in the park are rhesus monkeys, hanuman langurs, Indian pangolin, northern palm squirrel, red giant flying squirrel, particoloured flying squirrel, Indian porcupine, hispid hare, Indian hare and ganges doplhin.
Among the reptiles marsh crocoiles, gharials and Indian python are the largest.
The park's unique rhino herd was featured on The Jeff Corwin Experience in season 2, episode 11. This national park is just 10 km far from nearby city Bharatpur, Nepal and the Bharatpur Airport.
The park is rich in flora and fauna, which include one of the last populations of single-horned Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and the Bengal tiger Panthera tigris tigris. The area used to be known as "Four Mile Forest" (चार कोसे झाडी). It was a place for big game hunting and until 1951 it was a hunting reserve. At the park there is canoeing, elephant rides, and guided jungle walks.
Adjacent to the National Park in the east is the Parsa Wildlife Reserve (49.900 ha) and further east the Bara Hunting Reserve (25.900 ha). In the south the Chitwan is contiguous with the Indian Valmiki Tiger Reserve. The vegetation consits mainly of moist deciduous forests, with the sal as dominating tree species. In the Churia Hills pine trees predominate. On the floodplains of the large Rivers, by name the Rapti, the Reu and the Narayani there are large areas covered with Elephant grass alternating with riverine Forests mainly composed of Simal, Khair and Sisau trees.
The Chitwan National Park is home to at least 43 species of mammals, 450 species of birds, and 45 species of amphibians and reptiles. Elephants and Indian rhinos are the largest species found in the park, but a lot of other large herbivores are found in the park, gaur, sambar deer, Indian muntjac, chital, hog deer, mainland serow, chousingha and wild boar. Three large predator species, tigers, leopards, dholes prey on them and carrion eaters like striped hyenas are also found. Sloth bears are among the main attractions of the Park. Smaller carivore species are golden jackal, yellow-throated marten, ratel, smooth coated otter, small Indian civet, large Indian civet, spotted linsang, common palm civet, binturong, small Indian mongoose, Indian grey mongoose, crab-eating mongose, leopard cat, marbled cat and fishing cat. Further mammal species found in the park are rhesus monkeys, hanuman langurs, Indian pangolin, northern palm squirrel, red giant flying squirrel, particoloured flying squirrel, Indian porcupine, hispid hare, Indian hare and ganges doplhin.
Among the reptiles marsh crocoiles, gharials and Indian python are the largest.
The park's unique rhino herd was featured on The Jeff Corwin Experience in season 2, episode 11. This national park is just 10 km far from nearby city Bharatpur, Nepal and the Bharatpur Airport.
Royal Chitwan National Park*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
State Party
Nepal
Type
Natural
Criteria
vii, ix, x
Reference
284
Region**
Asia-Pacific
Inscription history
Inscription
1984 (8th Session)
Sunday, October 19, 2008
Sagarmatha National Park
Sagarmatha National Park, is located in eastern Nepal, containing parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest. The park was created July 19, 1976 and in 1979 was inscribed as a Natural World Heritage Site. Sagarmatha is Sanskrit for "Sagar = sky (not to be confused with sea/ocean) and matha = forehead or head " and is the modern Nepali name for Mount Everest.
The park encompasses an area of 1,148 km² and ranges in elevation from its lowest point of 2,845 m
The park encompasses an area of 1,148 km² and ranges in elevation from its lowest point of 2,845 m
Location
Nepal
Coordinates
27°57′55″N 86°54′47″E / 27.96528, 86.91306
Area
1,148 km²
Established
July 19, 1976
(9,335 ft) at Jorsalle to 8,850 m (29,035 ft) at the summit of Everest. Barren land above 5,000 m (16,400 ft) comprises 69% of the park while 28% is grazing land and the remaining 3% is forested. Most of the park area is very rugged and steep, with its terrain cut by deep rivers and glaciers. Unlike other parks, this park can be divided into four climate zones because of the rising altitude. The climatic zones include a forested lower zone, a zone of alpine scrub, the upper alpine zone which includes upper limit of vegetation growth, and the Arctic zone where no plants can grow. The types of plants and animals that are found in the park depend on the altitude. The park contains the upper watershed of the Dudh Kosi river basin system.
The park's visitor centre is located at the top of a hill in Namche Bazaar, also where a company of the Nepal Army is stationed for protecting the park. The park's southern entrance is a few hundred metres north of Mondzo at 2,835 m (9,300 ft), a one day hike from Lukla.
The park's visitor centre is located at the top of a hill in Namche Bazaar, also where a company of the Nepal Army is stationed for protecting the park. The park's southern entrance is a few hundred metres north of Mondzo at 2,835 m (9,300 ft), a one day hike from Lukla.
Flora and fauna
In the lower forested zone, birch, juniper, blue pines, firs, bamboo and rhododendron grow. Above this zone all vegetation are found to be dwarf or shrubs. As the altitude increases, plant life is restricted to lichens and mosses. Plants cease to grow at about 5,750 m (18,690 ft), because this is the permanent snow line in the Himalayas.
Forests of pine and hemlock cover the lower elevations of the national park. At elevations of around 3500 meters and above, forests of silver fir, birch, rhododendron and juniper trees are found. The forests provide habitat to at least 118 species of birds, including Danphe, Bloo pheasant, Red-billed chough, and yellow-billed chough. Sagarmatha National Park is also home to a number of rare species, including musk deer, wild yak, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear and red panda. Besides, many other animals such as Himalayan thars, deer, langur monkeys, hares, mountain foxes, martens, and Himalayan wolves are found in the park. However, their numbers are not very large and many visitors may not be able to see them.
The partial pressure of oxygen falls with altitude. Therefore, the animals that are found here are adapted to living on less oxygen as well as a cold temperature. They have thick coats to retain body heat. Some of them have shortened limbs to prevent loss of body heat. The Himalayan bears go into hibernation in caves during the winter when there is no food
Forests of pine and hemlock cover the lower elevations of the national park. At elevations of around 3500 meters and above, forests of silver fir, birch, rhododendron and juniper trees are found. The forests provide habitat to at least 118 species of birds, including Danphe, Bloo pheasant, Red-billed chough, and yellow-billed chough. Sagarmatha National Park is also home to a number of rare species, including musk deer, wild yak, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear and red panda. Besides, many other animals such as Himalayan thars, deer, langur monkeys, hares, mountain foxes, martens, and Himalayan wolves are found in the park. However, their numbers are not very large and many visitors may not be able to see them.
The partial pressure of oxygen falls with altitude. Therefore, the animals that are found here are adapted to living on less oxygen as well as a cold temperature. They have thick coats to retain body heat. Some of them have shortened limbs to prevent loss of body heat. The Himalayan bears go into hibernation in caves during the winter when there is no food
Saturday, October 18, 2008
Mount Everest
Mount Everest, also called Sagarmatha (Nepali: सगरमाथा meaning Head of the Sky) or Chomolungma, Qomolangma or Zhumulangma (in Tibetan: ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ, in Chinese: 珠穆朗玛峰 Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng) is the highest mountain on Earth, as measured by the height of its summit above sea level, which is 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). The mountain, which is part of the Himalaya range in High Asia, is located on the border between Sagarmatha Zone, Nepal, and Tibet, China.
In 1856, the Great Trigonometric Survey of India established the first published height of Everest at 29,002 ft (8,840 m), although at the time Everest was known as Peak XV. In 1865, Everest was given its official English name by the Royal Geographical Society upon recommendation of Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India at the time. Waugh was unable to propose an established local name due to Nepal and Tibet being closed to foreigners at the time, although Chomolungma had been in common use by Tibetans for centuries.
The highest mountain in the world attracts climbers of all levels, from well experienced mountaineers to novice climbers willing to pay substantial sums to professional mountain guides to complete a successful climb. The mountain, while not posing substantial technical climbing difficulty on the standard route (other eight-thousanders such as K2 or Nanga Parbat are much more difficult), still has many inherent dangers such as altitude sickness, weather and wind. By the end of the 2007 climbing season, there had been 3,679 ascents to the summit by 2,436 individuals. This means climbers are a significant source of tourist revenue for Nepal, whose government also requires all prospective climbers to obtain an expensive permit, costing up to US$25,000 per person.[4] Everest has claimed 210 lives, including eight who perished during a 1996 storm high on the mountain. Conditions are so difficult in the death zone that most corpses have been left where they fell, some of which are visible from standard climbing routes.[5]
In 1856, the Great Trigonometric Survey of India established the first published height of Everest at 29,002 ft (8,840 m), although at the time Everest was known as Peak XV. In 1865, Everest was given its official English name by the Royal Geographical Society upon recommendation of Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India at the time. Waugh was unable to propose an established local name due to Nepal and Tibet being closed to foreigners at the time, although Chomolungma had been in common use by Tibetans for centuries.
The highest mountain in the world attracts climbers of all levels, from well experienced mountaineers to novice climbers willing to pay substantial sums to professional mountain guides to complete a successful climb. The mountain, while not posing substantial technical climbing difficulty on the standard route (other eight-thousanders such as K2 or Nanga Parbat are much more difficult), still has many inherent dangers such as altitude sickness, weather and wind. By the end of the 2007 climbing season, there had been 3,679 ascents to the summit by 2,436 individuals. This means climbers are a significant source of tourist revenue for Nepal, whose government also requires all prospective climbers to obtain an expensive permit, costing up to US$25,000 per person.[4] Everest has claimed 210 lives, including eight who perished during a 1996 storm high on the mountain. Conditions are so difficult in the death zone that most corpses have been left where they fell, some of which are visible from standard climbing routes.[5]
Discovery of the highest mountain
In 1808, the British began the Great Trigonometric Survey of India to determine the location and names of the world's highest mountains. Starting in southern India, the survey teams gradually moved northward using giant 1100 pound (500 kg) theodolites (each requiring 12 men to carry) to measure heights as accurately as possible. They reached the Himalayan foothills by the 1830s, but Nepal was unwilling to allow the British to enter the country due to suspicions of political aggression and possible annexation. Several requests by the surveyors to enter Nepal were turned down.[6]
The British were forced to continue their observations from Terai, a region south of Nepal which is parallel to the Himalayas. Conditions in Terai were difficult due to torrential rains and malaria — three survey officers died from malaria while two others had to retire due to failing health.[6]
Nonetheless, in 1847, the British pressed on and began detailed observations of the Himalayan peaks from observation stations up to 150 mi (240 km) away. Weather restricted work to the last three months of the year. In November 1847, Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India made a number of observations from Sawajpore station located in the eastern end of the Himalayas. At the time, Kangchenjunga was considered the highest peak in the world, and with interest he noted a peak beyond it, some 140 mi (230 km) away. John Armstrong, one of Waugh's officials, also saw the peak from a location further west and called it peak 'b'. Waugh would later write that the observations indicated that peak 'b' was higher than Kangchenjunga, but due to the great distance of the observations, closer observations were required for verification. The following year, Waugh sent a survey official back to Terai to make closer observations of peak 'b', but clouds thwarted all attempts.[6]
In 1849, Waugh dispatched James Nicolson to the area. Nicolson was able to make two observations from Jirol, 118 mi (190 km) away. Nicolson then took the largest theodolite and headed east, obtaining over 30 observations from five different locations, with the closest being 108 mi (174 km) away from the peak.[6]
Nicolson retreated to Patna on the Ganges to perform the necessary calculations based on his observations. His raw data gave an average height of 30,200 ft (9,200 m) for peak 'b', but this did not take into account light refraction which distorts heights. The number clearly indicated, however, that peak 'b' was higher than Kangchenjunga. Unfortunately, Nicolson came down with malaria and was forced to return home, calculations unfinished. Michael Hennessy, one of Waugh's assistants, had begun designating peaks based on Roman Numerals, with Kangchenjunga named Peak IX, while peak 'b' now became known as Peak XV.[6]
Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) as seen from Kala PattarIn 1852, stationed at the survey's headquarters in Dehradun, Radhanath Sikdar, an Indian mathematician and surveyor from Bengal, was the first to identify Everest as the world's highest peak, using trigonometric calculations based on Nicolson's measurements.[7] An official announcement that Peak XV was the highest was delayed for several years as the calculations were repeatedly verified. Waugh began work on Nicolson's data in 1854, and along with his staff spent almost two years working on the calculations, having to deal with the problems of light refraction, barometric pressure, and temperature over the vast distances of the observations. Finally, in March 1856 he announced his findings in a letter to his deputy in Calcutta. Kangchenjunga was declared to be 28,156 ft (8,582 m), while Peak XV was given the height of 29,002 ft (8,840 m). Waugh concluded that Peak XV was "most probably the highest in the world".[6] Peak XV was found to be exactly 29,000 feet (8,839 m) high, but was publicly declared to be 29,002 ft (8,840 m). The arbitrary addition of 2 feet (60 cm) was to avoid the impression that an exact height of 29,000 feet was nothing more than a rounded estimate.[8]
With the height now established, what to name the peak was clearly the next challenge. While the survey was anxious to preserve local names if possible (e.g., Kangchenjunga and Dhaulagiri were local names), Waugh argued that he was unable to find any commonly used local name. Waugh's search for a local name was hampered by Nepal and Tibet being closed to foreigners at the time. Many local names existed, with perhaps the best known in Tibet for several centuries being Chomolungma, which had appeared on a 1733 map published in Paris by the French geographer D'Anville. However, Waugh argued that with the plethora of local names, it would be difficult to favour one specific name over all others. So, he decided that Peak XV should be named after George Everest, his predecessor as Surveyor General of India.[6][9] He wrote:
I was taught by my respected chief and predecessor, Colonel Sir George Everest to assign to every geographical object its true local or native appellation. But here is a mountain, most probably the highest in the world, without any local name that we can discover, whose native appellation, if it has any, will not very likely be ascertained before we are allowed to penetrate into Nepal. In the meantime the privilege as well as the duty devolves on me to assign…a name whereby it may be known among citizens and geographers and become a household word among civilized nations.[10]
George Everest opposed the name suggested by Waugh and told the Royal Geographical Society in 1857 that Everest could not be written in Hindi nor pronounced by "the native of India". Waugh's proposed name prevailed despite the objections, and in 1865, the Royal Geographical Society officially adopted Mount Everest as the name for the highest mountain in the world.[6]
The British were forced to continue their observations from Terai, a region south of Nepal which is parallel to the Himalayas. Conditions in Terai were difficult due to torrential rains and malaria — three survey officers died from malaria while two others had to retire due to failing health.[6]
Nonetheless, in 1847, the British pressed on and began detailed observations of the Himalayan peaks from observation stations up to 150 mi (240 km) away. Weather restricted work to the last three months of the year. In November 1847, Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India made a number of observations from Sawajpore station located in the eastern end of the Himalayas. At the time, Kangchenjunga was considered the highest peak in the world, and with interest he noted a peak beyond it, some 140 mi (230 km) away. John Armstrong, one of Waugh's officials, also saw the peak from a location further west and called it peak 'b'. Waugh would later write that the observations indicated that peak 'b' was higher than Kangchenjunga, but due to the great distance of the observations, closer observations were required for verification. The following year, Waugh sent a survey official back to Terai to make closer observations of peak 'b', but clouds thwarted all attempts.[6]
In 1849, Waugh dispatched James Nicolson to the area. Nicolson was able to make two observations from Jirol, 118 mi (190 km) away. Nicolson then took the largest theodolite and headed east, obtaining over 30 observations from five different locations, with the closest being 108 mi (174 km) away from the peak.[6]
Nicolson retreated to Patna on the Ganges to perform the necessary calculations based on his observations. His raw data gave an average height of 30,200 ft (9,200 m) for peak 'b', but this did not take into account light refraction which distorts heights. The number clearly indicated, however, that peak 'b' was higher than Kangchenjunga. Unfortunately, Nicolson came down with malaria and was forced to return home, calculations unfinished. Michael Hennessy, one of Waugh's assistants, had begun designating peaks based on Roman Numerals, with Kangchenjunga named Peak IX, while peak 'b' now became known as Peak XV.[6]
Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) as seen from Kala PattarIn 1852, stationed at the survey's headquarters in Dehradun, Radhanath Sikdar, an Indian mathematician and surveyor from Bengal, was the first to identify Everest as the world's highest peak, using trigonometric calculations based on Nicolson's measurements.[7] An official announcement that Peak XV was the highest was delayed for several years as the calculations were repeatedly verified. Waugh began work on Nicolson's data in 1854, and along with his staff spent almost two years working on the calculations, having to deal with the problems of light refraction, barometric pressure, and temperature over the vast distances of the observations. Finally, in March 1856 he announced his findings in a letter to his deputy in Calcutta. Kangchenjunga was declared to be 28,156 ft (8,582 m), while Peak XV was given the height of 29,002 ft (8,840 m). Waugh concluded that Peak XV was "most probably the highest in the world".[6] Peak XV was found to be exactly 29,000 feet (8,839 m) high, but was publicly declared to be 29,002 ft (8,840 m). The arbitrary addition of 2 feet (60 cm) was to avoid the impression that an exact height of 29,000 feet was nothing more than a rounded estimate.[8]
With the height now established, what to name the peak was clearly the next challenge. While the survey was anxious to preserve local names if possible (e.g., Kangchenjunga and Dhaulagiri were local names), Waugh argued that he was unable to find any commonly used local name. Waugh's search for a local name was hampered by Nepal and Tibet being closed to foreigners at the time. Many local names existed, with perhaps the best known in Tibet for several centuries being Chomolungma, which had appeared on a 1733 map published in Paris by the French geographer D'Anville. However, Waugh argued that with the plethora of local names, it would be difficult to favour one specific name over all others. So, he decided that Peak XV should be named after George Everest, his predecessor as Surveyor General of India.[6][9] He wrote:
I was taught by my respected chief and predecessor, Colonel Sir George Everest to assign to every geographical object its true local or native appellation. But here is a mountain, most probably the highest in the world, without any local name that we can discover, whose native appellation, if it has any, will not very likely be ascertained before we are allowed to penetrate into Nepal. In the meantime the privilege as well as the duty devolves on me to assign…a name whereby it may be known among citizens and geographers and become a household word among civilized nations.[10]
George Everest opposed the name suggested by Waugh and told the Royal Geographical Society in 1857 that Everest could not be written in Hindi nor pronounced by "the native of India". Waugh's proposed name prevailed despite the objections, and in 1865, the Royal Geographical Society officially adopted Mount Everest as the name for the highest mountain in the world.[6]
Naming
The Tibetan name for Mount Everest is Chomolungma or Qomolangma (ཇོ་མོ་གླིང་མ, which means "Saint Mother"), and the Chinese transliteration is Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng (simplified Chinese: 珠穆朗玛峰; traditional Chinese: 珠穆朗瑪峰), which refers to Earth Mother; the Chinese translation is Shèngmǔ Fēng (simplified Chinese: 圣母峰; traditional Chinese: 聖母峰), which refers to Holy Mother. According to English accounts of the mid-19th century, the local name in Darjeeling for Mount Everest was Deodungha, or "Holy Mountain".[11]
In 1865, the mountain was officially given its English name by the Royal Geographical Society after being proposed by Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India.[6] Waugh chose to name the mountain after George Everest, first using the spelling Mont Everest, and then Mount Everest. However, the modern pronunciation of Everest IPA: /ˈɛvərɪst, ˈɛvrɪst/[12] is in fact different from Sir George's own pronunciation of his surname, which was /ˈiːvrɪst/[13].
In the late 19th century, many European cartographers incorrectly believed that a native name for the mountain was "Gaurisankar".[14] This was a result of confusion of Mount Everest with the actual Gauri Sankar, which, when viewed from Kathmandu, stands almost directly in front of Everest.[citation needed]
In the early 1960s, the Nepalese government gave Mount Everest the official name Sagarmatha (सगरमाथा).[15] This name had not previously been used; the local inhabitants knew the mountain as Chomolungma. The mountain was not known and named in ethnic Nepal (that is, the Kathmandu valley and surrounding areas).[citation needed] The government set out to find a Nepalese name for the mountain because the Sherpa/Tibetan name Chomolangma was not acceptable, as it would have been against the idea of unification (Nepalization) of the country.[citation needed]
In 2002, the Chinese People's Daily newspaper published an article making a case against the continued use of the English name for the mountain in the Western world, insisting that it should be referred to by its Tibetan name. The newspaper argued that the Chinese (in nature a Tibetan) name preceded the English one, as Mount Qomolangma was marked on a Chinese map more than 280 years ago.[16]
In 1865, the mountain was officially given its English name by the Royal Geographical Society after being proposed by Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India.[6] Waugh chose to name the mountain after George Everest, first using the spelling Mont Everest, and then Mount Everest. However, the modern pronunciation of Everest IPA: /ˈɛvərɪst, ˈɛvrɪst/[12] is in fact different from Sir George's own pronunciation of his surname, which was /ˈiːvrɪst/[13].
In the late 19th century, many European cartographers incorrectly believed that a native name for the mountain was "Gaurisankar".[14] This was a result of confusion of Mount Everest with the actual Gauri Sankar, which, when viewed from Kathmandu, stands almost directly in front of Everest.[citation needed]
In the early 1960s, the Nepalese government gave Mount Everest the official name Sagarmatha (सगरमाथा).[15] This name had not previously been used; the local inhabitants knew the mountain as Chomolungma. The mountain was not known and named in ethnic Nepal (that is, the Kathmandu valley and surrounding areas).[citation needed] The government set out to find a Nepalese name for the mountain because the Sherpa/Tibetan name Chomolangma was not acceptable, as it would have been against the idea of unification (Nepalization) of the country.[citation needed]
In 2002, the Chinese People's Daily newspaper published an article making a case against the continued use of the English name for the mountain in the Western world, insisting that it should be referred to by its Tibetan name. The newspaper argued that the Chinese (in nature a Tibetan) name preceded the English one, as Mount Qomolangma was marked on a Chinese map more than 280 years ago.[16]
Measurement
In 1856, Andrew Waugh announced Everest (then known as Peak XV) as 29,002 feet (8,840 m) high, after several years of calculations based on observations made by the Great Trigonometric Survey.
More recently, the mountain has been found to be 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) high, although there is some variation in the measurements. On 9 October 2005, after several months of measurement and calculation, the PRC's State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping officially announced the height of Everest as 8,844.43 m ± 0.21 m (29,017.16 ± 0.69 ft). They claimed it was the most accurate and precise measurement to date.[17] This height is based on the actual highest point of rock and not on the snow and ice covering it. The Chinese team also measured a snow/ice depth of 3.5 m,[18] which is in agreement with a net elevation of 8,848 m. The snow and ice thickness varies over time, making a definitive height of the snow cap impossible to determine.
The elevation of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) was first determined by an Indian survey in 1955, made closer to the mountain, also using theodolites. It was subsequently reaffirmed by a 1975 Chinese measurement.[19] In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head, was measured. In May 1999 an American Everest Expedition, directed by Bradford Washburn, anchored a GPS unit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of 8,850 m (29,035 ft), and a snow/ice elevation 1 m (3 ft) higher, were obtained via this device.[20] Although it has not been officially recognized by Nepal,[21] this figure is widely quoted. Geoid uncertainty casts doubt upon the accuracy claimed by both the 1999 and 2005 surveys.
A detailed photogrammetric map (at a scale of 1:50,000) of the Khumbu region, including the south side of Mount Everest, was made by Erwin Schneider as part of the 1955 International Himalayan Expedition, which also attempted Lhotse. An even more detailed topographic map of the Everest area was made in the late 1980s under the direction of Bradford Washburn, using extensive aerial photography.[22]
It is thought that the plate tectonics of the area are adding to the height and moving the summit north-eastwards. Two accounts[20][23] suggest the rates of change are 4 mm (0.16 in) per year (upwards) and 3-6 mm (0.12-0.25 in) per year (northeastwards), but another account mentions more lateral movement (27 mm/1.1 in),[24] and even shrinkage has been suggested.[25]
The Mount Everest region, and the Himalayas in general, are thought to be experiencing ice-melt due to global warming.[26]
More recently, the mountain has been found to be 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) high, although there is some variation in the measurements. On 9 October 2005, after several months of measurement and calculation, the PRC's State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping officially announced the height of Everest as 8,844.43 m ± 0.21 m (29,017.16 ± 0.69 ft). They claimed it was the most accurate and precise measurement to date.[17] This height is based on the actual highest point of rock and not on the snow and ice covering it. The Chinese team also measured a snow/ice depth of 3.5 m,[18] which is in agreement with a net elevation of 8,848 m. The snow and ice thickness varies over time, making a definitive height of the snow cap impossible to determine.
The elevation of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) was first determined by an Indian survey in 1955, made closer to the mountain, also using theodolites. It was subsequently reaffirmed by a 1975 Chinese measurement.[19] In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head, was measured. In May 1999 an American Everest Expedition, directed by Bradford Washburn, anchored a GPS unit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of 8,850 m (29,035 ft), and a snow/ice elevation 1 m (3 ft) higher, were obtained via this device.[20] Although it has not been officially recognized by Nepal,[21] this figure is widely quoted. Geoid uncertainty casts doubt upon the accuracy claimed by both the 1999 and 2005 surveys.
A detailed photogrammetric map (at a scale of 1:50,000) of the Khumbu region, including the south side of Mount Everest, was made by Erwin Schneider as part of the 1955 International Himalayan Expedition, which also attempted Lhotse. An even more detailed topographic map of the Everest area was made in the late 1980s under the direction of Bradford Washburn, using extensive aerial photography.[22]
It is thought that the plate tectonics of the area are adding to the height and moving the summit north-eastwards. Two accounts[20][23] suggest the rates of change are 4 mm (0.16 in) per year (upwards) and 3-6 mm (0.12-0.25 in) per year (northeastwards), but another account mentions more lateral movement (27 mm/1.1 in),[24] and even shrinkage has been suggested.[25]
The Mount Everest region, and the Himalayas in general, are thought to be experiencing ice-melt due to global warming.[26]
Comparisons
Everest is the mountain whose summit attains the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed as alternative "tallest mountains on Earth". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base;[27] it rises over 10,200 m (6.3 mi) when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above sea level.
By the same measure of base[27] to summit, Mount McKinley, in Alaska, is also taller than Everest. Despite its height above sea level of only 6,193.6 m (20,320 ft), Mount McKinley sits atop a sloping plain with elevations from 300-900 m (1,000-3,000 ft), yielding a height above base in the range of 5,300-5,900 m (17,300-19,300 ft); a commonly quoted figure is 5,600 m (18,400 ft).[28] By comparison, reasonable base elevations for Everest range from 4,200 m (13,800 ft) on the south side to 5,200 m (17,100 ft) on the Tibetan Plateau, yielding a height above base in the range of 3,650 m (12,000 ft) to 4,650 m (15,300 ft).[22]
The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is 2,168 m (7,113 ft) farther from the Earth's centre (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi) than that of Everest (6,382.3 km or 3,965.8 mi), because the Earth bulges at the Equator. However, Chimborazo attains a height of only 6,267 m (20,561 ft) above sea level, and by this criterion it is not even the highest peak of the Andes.
By the same measure of base[27] to summit, Mount McKinley, in Alaska, is also taller than Everest. Despite its height above sea level of only 6,193.6 m (20,320 ft), Mount McKinley sits atop a sloping plain with elevations from 300-900 m (1,000-3,000 ft), yielding a height above base in the range of 5,300-5,900 m (17,300-19,300 ft); a commonly quoted figure is 5,600 m (18,400 ft).[28] By comparison, reasonable base elevations for Everest range from 4,200 m (13,800 ft) on the south side to 5,200 m (17,100 ft) on the Tibetan Plateau, yielding a height above base in the range of 3,650 m (12,000 ft) to 4,650 m (15,300 ft).[22]
The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is 2,168 m (7,113 ft) farther from the Earth's centre (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi) than that of Everest (6,382.3 km or 3,965.8 mi), because the Earth bulges at the Equator. However, Chimborazo attains a height of only 6,267 m (20,561 ft) above sea level, and by this criterion it is not even the highest peak of the Andes.
Climbing routes
Mt. Everest has two main climbing routes, the southeast ridge from Nepal and the northeast ridge from Tibet, as well as many other less frequently climbed routes.[29] Of the two main routes, the southeast ridge is technically easier and is the more frequently-used route. It was the route used by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953 and the first recognised of fifteen routes to the top by 1996.[29] This was, however, a route decision dictated more by politics than by design as the Chinese border was closed to the western world in 1950s after the Communist China took over the control Tibet from the Republic of China.[30]
View from space showing South Col route and North Col/Ridge routeMost attempts are made during May before the summer monsoon season. As the monsoon season approaches, a change in the jet stream at this time pushes it northward, thereby reducing the average wind speeds high on the mountain.[31][32] While attempts are sometimes made after the monsoons in September and October, when the jet stream is again temporarily pushed northward, the additional snow deposited by the monsoons and the less stable weather patterns (tail end of the monsoon) makes climbing more difficult.
View from space showing South Col route and North Col/Ridge routeMost attempts are made during May before the summer monsoon season. As the monsoon season approaches, a change in the jet stream at this time pushes it northward, thereby reducing the average wind speeds high on the mountain.[31][32] While attempts are sometimes made after the monsoons in September and October, when the jet stream is again temporarily pushed northward, the additional snow deposited by the monsoons and the less stable weather patterns (tail end of the monsoon) makes climbing more difficult.
Southeast ridge
The ascent via the southeast ridge begins with a trek to Base Camp at 5,380 m (17,700 ft) on the south side of Everest in Nepal. Expeditions usually fly into Lukla (2,860 m) from Kathmandu and pass through Namche Bazaar. Climbers then hike to Base Camp, which usually takes six to eight days, allowing for proper altitude acclimatization in order to prevent altitude sickness. Climbing equipment and supplies are carried by yaks, dzopkyos (yak hybrids) and human porters to Base Camp on the Khumbu Glacier. When Hillary and Tenzing climbed Everest in 1953, they started from Kathmandu Valley, as there were no roads further east at that time.
Climbers will spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, acclimatizing to the altitude. During that time, Sherpas and some expedition climbers will set up ropes and ladders in the treacherous Khumbu Icefall. Seracs, crevasses and shifting blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dangerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sherpas have been killed in this section. To reduce the hazard, climbers will usually begin their ascent well before dawn when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place. Above the icefall is Camp I at 6,065 metres (19,900 ft).
From Camp I, climbers make their way up the Western Cwm to the base of the Lhotse face, where Camp II or Advanced Base Camp (ABC) is established at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). The Western Cwm is a relatively flat, gently rising glacial valley, marked by huge lateral crevasses in the centre which prevent direct access to the upper reaches of the Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far right near the base of Nuptse to a small passageway known as the "Nuptse corner". The Western Cwm is also called the "Valley of Silence" as the topography of the area generally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The high altitude and a clear, windless day can make the Western Cwm unbearably hot for climbers.[33]
From ABC, climbers ascend the Lhotse face on fixed ropes up to Camp III, located on a small ledge at 7,470 m (24,500 ft). From there, it is another 500 metres to Camp IV on the South Col at 7,920 m (26,000 ft). From Camp III to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additional challenges: The Geneva Spur and The Yellow Band. The Geneva Spur is an anvil shaped rib of black rock named by a 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbers in scrambling over this snow covered rock band. The Yellow Band is a section of interlayered marble, phyllite, and semischist which also requires about 100 metres of rope for traversing it.[33]
On the South Col, climbers enter the death zone. Climbers typically only have a maximum of two or three days they can endure at this altitude for making summit bids. Clear weather and low winds are critical factors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. If weather does not cooperate within these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp.
Climbers will spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, acclimatizing to the altitude. During that time, Sherpas and some expedition climbers will set up ropes and ladders in the treacherous Khumbu Icefall. Seracs, crevasses and shifting blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dangerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sherpas have been killed in this section. To reduce the hazard, climbers will usually begin their ascent well before dawn when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place. Above the icefall is Camp I at 6,065 metres (19,900 ft).
From Camp I, climbers make their way up the Western Cwm to the base of the Lhotse face, where Camp II or Advanced Base Camp (ABC) is established at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). The Western Cwm is a relatively flat, gently rising glacial valley, marked by huge lateral crevasses in the centre which prevent direct access to the upper reaches of the Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far right near the base of Nuptse to a small passageway known as the "Nuptse corner". The Western Cwm is also called the "Valley of Silence" as the topography of the area generally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The high altitude and a clear, windless day can make the Western Cwm unbearably hot for climbers.[33]
From ABC, climbers ascend the Lhotse face on fixed ropes up to Camp III, located on a small ledge at 7,470 m (24,500 ft). From there, it is another 500 metres to Camp IV on the South Col at 7,920 m (26,000 ft). From Camp III to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additional challenges: The Geneva Spur and The Yellow Band. The Geneva Spur is an anvil shaped rib of black rock named by a 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbers in scrambling over this snow covered rock band. The Yellow Band is a section of interlayered marble, phyllite, and semischist which also requires about 100 metres of rope for traversing it.[33]
On the South Col, climbers enter the death zone. Climbers typically only have a maximum of two or three days they can endure at this altitude for making summit bids. Clear weather and low winds are critical factors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. If weather does not cooperate within these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp.
From Camp IV, climbers will begin their summit push around midnight with hopes of reaching the summit (still another 1,000 metres above) within 10 to 12 hours. Climbers will first reach "The Balcony" at 8,400 m (27,600 ft), a small platform where they can rest and gaze at peaks to the south and east in the early dawn light. Continuing up the ridge, climbers are then faced with a series of imposing rock steps which usually forces them to the east into waist deep snow, a serious avalanche hazard. At 8,750 m (28,700 ft), a small table-sized dome of ice and snow marks the South Summit.[33]
From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edge southeast ridge along what is known as the "Cornice traverse" where snow clings to intermittent rock. This is the most exposed section of the climb as a misstep to the left would send one 2,400 m (8,000 ft) down the southwest face while to the immediate right is the 3,050 m (10,000 ft) Kangshung face. At the end of this traverse is an imposing 12 m (40 ft) rock wall called the "Hillary Step" at 8,760 m (28,740 ft).[33]
Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step and they did it with primitive ice climbing equipment and without fixed ropes. Nowadays, climbers will ascend this step using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once above the step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopes - though the exposure on the ridge is extreme especially while traversing very large cornices of snow. With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain in recent years, the Step has frequently become a bottleneck, with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes, leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain. After the Hillary Step, climbers also must traverse a very loose and rocky section that has a very large entanglement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in bad weather. Climbers will typically spend less than a half-hour on "top of the world" as they realize the need to descend to Camp IV before darkness sets in, afternoon weather becomes a serious problem, or supplemental oxygen tanks run out.
From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edge southeast ridge along what is known as the "Cornice traverse" where snow clings to intermittent rock. This is the most exposed section of the climb as a misstep to the left would send one 2,400 m (8,000 ft) down the southwest face while to the immediate right is the 3,050 m (10,000 ft) Kangshung face. At the end of this traverse is an imposing 12 m (40 ft) rock wall called the "Hillary Step" at 8,760 m (28,740 ft).[33]
Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step and they did it with primitive ice climbing equipment and without fixed ropes. Nowadays, climbers will ascend this step using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once above the step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopes - though the exposure on the ridge is extreme especially while traversing very large cornices of snow. With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain in recent years, the Step has frequently become a bottleneck, with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes, leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain. After the Hillary Step, climbers also must traverse a very loose and rocky section that has a very large entanglement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in bad weather. Climbers will typically spend less than a half-hour on "top of the world" as they realize the need to descend to Camp IV before darkness sets in, afternoon weather becomes a serious problem, or supplemental oxygen tanks run out.
Northeast ridge
The northeast ridge route begins from the north side of Everest in Tibet. Expeditions trek to the Rongbuk Glacier, setting up Base Camp at 5,180 m (16,990 ft) on a gravel plain just below the glacier. To reach Camp II, climbers ascend the medial moraine of the east Rongbuk Glacier up to the base of Changtse at around 6,100 m (20,000 ft). Camp III (ABC - Advanced Base Camp) is situated below the North Col at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). To reach Camp IV on the north col, climbers ascend the glacier to the foot of the col where fixed ropes are used to reach the North Col at 7,010 m (23,000 ft). From the North Col, climbers ascend the rocky north ridge to set up Camp V at around 7,775 m (25,500 ft). The route crosses the North Face in a diagonal climb to the base of the Yellow Band reaching the site of Camp VI at 8,230 m (27,000 ft). From Camp VI, climbers will make their final summit push. Climbers face a treacherous traverse from the base of the First Step: 27,890 feet - 28,000 feet, to the crux of the climb, the Second Step: 28,140 feet - 28,300 feet. (The Second Step includes a climbing aid called the "Chinese ladder", a metal ladder placed semi-permanently in 1975 by a party of Chinese climbers. It has been almost continuously in place since, and is used by virtually all climbers on the route.) Once above the Second Step the inconsequential Third Step is clambered over: 28,510 feet - 28,870 feet. Once above these steps, the summit pyramid is climbed by means of a snow slope of 50 degrees, to the final summit ridge along which the top is reached.[34]
Wednesday, October 15, 2008
7 World Trade Center
7 World Trade Center is a building in New York City located across from the World Trade Center site in Lower Manhattan. The name "7 World Trade Center" has referred to two buildings: the original structure, completed in 1987, and the current structure. The original building was destroyed on September 11, 2001 and replaced with the new 7 World Trade Center, which opened in 2006. Both buildings were developed by Larry Silverstein, who holds a ground lease for the site from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.
The original 7 World Trade Center was 47 stories tall, clad in red exterior masonry, and occupied a trapezoidal footprint. An elevated walkway connected the building to the World Trade Center plaza. The building was situated above a Consolidated Edison (Con Ed) power substation, which imposed unique structural design constraints. When the building opened in 1987, Silverstein had difficulties attracting tenants. In 1988, Salomon Brothers signed a long-term lease, and became the main tenants of the building. On September 11, 2001, 7 WTC was damaged by debris when the nearby North Tower of the WTC collapsed. The debris also ignited fires, which continued to burn throughout the afternoon on lower floors of the building, with a lack of water to fight the fires. The building collapsed completely at 5:20 p.m., when a critical column on the 13th floor buckled and triggered structural failure throughout.
The new 7 World Trade Center construction began in 2002 and was completed in 2006. It is 52 stories tall and still situated above the Con Ed power substation. Built on a smaller footprint than the original to allow Greenwich Street to be restored from TriBeCa through the World Trade Center site and south to Battery Park, the new building is bounded by Greenwich, Vesey, Washington, and Barclay streets. A small park across Greenwich Street occupies space that was part of the original building's footprint. The current 7 World Trade Center's design placed emphasis on safety, with a reinforced concrete core, wider stairways, and thicker fireproofing of steel columns, and incorporates numerous environmentally friendly features.
The original 7 World Trade Center was 47 stories tall, clad in red exterior masonry, and occupied a trapezoidal footprint. An elevated walkway connected the building to the World Trade Center plaza. The building was situated above a Consolidated Edison (Con Ed) power substation, which imposed unique structural design constraints. When the building opened in 1987, Silverstein had difficulties attracting tenants. In 1988, Salomon Brothers signed a long-term lease, and became the main tenants of the building. On September 11, 2001, 7 WTC was damaged by debris when the nearby North Tower of the WTC collapsed. The debris also ignited fires, which continued to burn throughout the afternoon on lower floors of the building, with a lack of water to fight the fires. The building collapsed completely at 5:20 p.m., when a critical column on the 13th floor buckled and triggered structural failure throughout.
The new 7 World Trade Center construction began in 2002 and was completed in 2006. It is 52 stories tall and still situated above the Con Ed power substation. Built on a smaller footprint than the original to allow Greenwich Street to be restored from TriBeCa through the World Trade Center site and south to Battery Park, the new building is bounded by Greenwich, Vesey, Washington, and Barclay streets. A small park across Greenwich Street occupies space that was part of the original building's footprint. The current 7 World Trade Center's design placed emphasis on safety, with a reinforced concrete core, wider stairways, and thicker fireproofing of steel columns, and incorporates numerous environmentally friendly features.
List of Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments in South Los Angeles
This is a list of Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments in South Los Angeles, California, USA. In total, there are 144 Historic-Cultural Monuments (HCM) in the South Los Angeles area, which includes the historic West Adams, Exposition Park, and University of Southern California campus areas. It also includes historic sites in Watts (including Simon Rodia's Watts Towers), Baldwin Hills, Crenshaw, Jefferson Park, and Leimert Park. Further, certain historic sites in Arlington Heights, Harvard Heights and Mid-City neighborhoods below Pico Boulevard are identified by the Los Angeles Department of City Planning as being in South Los Angeles, and are included here.[1] There is also a separate list below identifying other historic sites in the area that have not been designated as HCMs, but which have been recognized as California Historical Landmarks or have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Overview of the Historic-Cultural Monuments in southern Los Angeles
National Historic Landmarks. The southern portion of Los Angeles includes some of the city's most historic sites, including three National Historic Landmarks. The sites receiving this high designation are: (1) the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, built in 1923, and used as the principal site of the 1932 and 1984 Summer Olympic Games;[2] (2) the Watts Towers (HCM #15), a collection of 17 interconnected structures, two of which reach heights of over 99 feet (30 m), built by Italian immigrant construction worker Simon Rodia in his spare time from 1921 to 1954; and (3) Baldwin Hills Village (HCM #174), an innovative planned community built in the 1930s with large open grassy areas and trees.
Historic West Adams. The largest concentration of historic sites in the South Los Angeles area is in the West Adams district, along a three-mile stretch of West Adams Boulevard between Arlington Avenue and Figueroa Street. Though South Los Angeles is now considered one of the
poorest sections of the city, the West Adams district was one of the city's most affluent areas from the 1890s through the 1920s. Many of the area's mansions, Victorian homes, and American Craftsman bungalows have been preserved. The area's 70 Historic-Cultural Monuments include some of the city's most reknowned landmarks, such as oil baron Edward Doheny's Chester Place mansion (HCM #30), the William Andrews Clark Memorial Library (HCM #28) operated by UCLA, the castle-like Stimson House (HCM #212) that survived a dynamite attack in 1896, Frederick Hastings Rindge House (HCM #95) built by a Bostonian who owned all of Malibu, the picturesque Victorian Forthmann House (HCM #103), and the birthplace of two-time U.S. Presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson (HCM #35).
Churches. Many of the city's most recognizable churches are also located in southern Los Angeles, including the domed Second Church of Christ Scientist (HCM #57), the second Catholic church in the city to be consecrated, St. Vincent de Paul (HCM #72), the city's Episcopal cathedral, Saint John's , its Greek Orthodox cathedral, Saint Sophia (HCM #120), the Gothic McCarty Memorial Christian Church, which became one of the first white Protestant churches to be racially integrated in the 1950s, the Lombard Romanesque Second Baptist Church (HCM #200) designed in 1925 by noted African-American architect, Paul R. Williams, and the Richardsonian Romanesque First African Methodist Episcopal Zion Cathedral (HCM #341).
USC and Exposition Park. To the south of West Adams is the campus of the University of Southern California and Exposition Park. The important sites in these neighborhoods include the Coliseum, the Shrine Auditorium (HCM #139) (the site of eleven Academy Awards ceremonies between 1947 and 2001),[3] the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, the Exposition Park Rose Garden, and USC's Widney Hall (HCM #70) (the oldest university building in Southern California, in continuous use since 1880).
The Dunbar Hotel was at the center of the Central Avenue jazz scene in the 1930s and 1940s.African-American Music History. The area also includes sites that have played an important role in the city's musical history. The Ray Charles Worldwide Offices and Studios were designated as a Historic-Cultural Monument (HCM #776) in 2004, and the Dunbar Hotel (HCM #70) was at the center of the thriving Central Avenue jazz scene in the 1930s and 1940s. After hosting the first national convention of the NAACP to be held in the western United States, the Dunbar hosted Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, Billie Holiday, Louis Armstrong, Lionel Hampton, Count Basie, Lena Horne and other jazz legends. Former heavyweight champion Jack Johnson also ran a nightclub at the Dunbar in the 1930s. And the Lincoln Theatre (HCM #744), built in 1927, was once the crown jewel of Central Avenue, referred to by some as the West Coast's version of New York's Apollo Theater.
Ralph J. Bunche House. The Ralph J. Bunche House (HCM #159), boyhood home of Ralph J. Bunche, the first African-American to win the Nobel Peace Prize, has been preserved as a museum.
Vermont Square Branch Library. The city's oldest library building, the Vermont Square Branch (HCM #264) was built in 1913 in the Vermont Square section of South Los Angeles. It is an Italian Renaissance style building with Prairie style proportions built with a grant from Andrew Carnegie.
Watts Station. The Watts Station was designated as a Historic-Cultural Monument (HCM #36) shortly after the Watts Riots in 1965. The old wooden railway station, built in 1904, was the only building along Watts' main thoroughfare (which became known as "Charcoal Alley") to survive the riots. The station became a symbol of continuity, hope and renewal for the Watts community.
A map displaying the historic sites and districts in South Los Angeles can be viewed by clicking "Map of all coordinates" below to the right.
Historic West Adams. The largest concentration of historic sites in the South Los Angeles area is in the West Adams district, along a three-mile stretch of West Adams Boulevard between Arlington Avenue and Figueroa Street. Though South Los Angeles is now considered one of the
poorest sections of the city, the West Adams district was one of the city's most affluent areas from the 1890s through the 1920s. Many of the area's mansions, Victorian homes, and American Craftsman bungalows have been preserved. The area's 70 Historic-Cultural Monuments include some of the city's most reknowned landmarks, such as oil baron Edward Doheny's Chester Place mansion (HCM #30), the William Andrews Clark Memorial Library (HCM #28) operated by UCLA, the castle-like Stimson House (HCM #212) that survived a dynamite attack in 1896, Frederick Hastings Rindge House (HCM #95) built by a Bostonian who owned all of Malibu, the picturesque Victorian Forthmann House (HCM #103), and the birthplace of two-time U.S. Presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson (HCM #35).Churches. Many of the city's most recognizable churches are also located in southern Los Angeles, including the domed Second Church of Christ Scientist (HCM #57), the second Catholic church in the city to be consecrated, St. Vincent de Paul (HCM #72), the city's Episcopal cathedral, Saint John's , its Greek Orthodox cathedral, Saint Sophia (HCM #120), the Gothic McCarty Memorial Christian Church, which became one of the first white Protestant churches to be racially integrated in the 1950s, the Lombard Romanesque Second Baptist Church (HCM #200) designed in 1925 by noted African-American architect, Paul R. Williams, and the Richardsonian Romanesque First African Methodist Episcopal Zion Cathedral (HCM #341).
USC and Exposition Park. To the south of West Adams is the campus of the University of Southern California and Exposition Park. The important sites in these neighborhoods include the Coliseum, the Shrine Auditorium (HCM #139) (the site of eleven Academy Awards ceremonies between 1947 and 2001),[3] the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, the Exposition Park Rose Garden, and USC's Widney Hall (HCM #70) (the oldest university building in Southern California, in continuous use since 1880).
The Dunbar Hotel was at the center of the Central Avenue jazz scene in the 1930s and 1940s.African-American Music History. The area also includes sites that have played an important role in the city's musical history. The Ray Charles Worldwide Offices and Studios were designated as a Historic-Cultural Monument (HCM #776) in 2004, and the Dunbar Hotel (HCM #70) was at the center of the thriving Central Avenue jazz scene in the 1930s and 1940s. After hosting the first national convention of the NAACP to be held in the western United States, the Dunbar hosted Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, Billie Holiday, Louis Armstrong, Lionel Hampton, Count Basie, Lena Horne and other jazz legends. Former heavyweight champion Jack Johnson also ran a nightclub at the Dunbar in the 1930s. And the Lincoln Theatre (HCM #744), built in 1927, was once the crown jewel of Central Avenue, referred to by some as the West Coast's version of New York's Apollo Theater.
Ralph J. Bunche House. The Ralph J. Bunche House (HCM #159), boyhood home of Ralph J. Bunche, the first African-American to win the Nobel Peace Prize, has been preserved as a museum.
Vermont Square Branch Library. The city's oldest library building, the Vermont Square Branch (HCM #264) was built in 1913 in the Vermont Square section of South Los Angeles. It is an Italian Renaissance style building with Prairie style proportions built with a grant from Andrew Carnegie.
Watts Station. The Watts Station was designated as a Historic-Cultural Monument (HCM #36) shortly after the Watts Riots in 1965. The old wooden railway station, built in 1904, was the only building along Watts' main thoroughfare (which became known as "Charcoal Alley") to survive the riots. The station became a symbol of continuity, hope and renewal for the Watts community.
A map displaying the historic sites and districts in South Los Angeles can be viewed by clicking "Map of all coordinates" below to the right.
Asian Brown Flycatcher
The Asian Brown Flycatcher, Muscicapa dauurica, is a small passerine bird in the flycatcher family Muscicapidae.
This is an insectivorous species which breeds in Japan, eastern Siberia and the Himalayas. It is migratory and winters in tropical southern Asia from southern India and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia.
This is an insectivorous species which breeds in Japan, eastern Siberia and the Himalayas. It is migratory and winters in tropical southern Asia from southern India and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia.
Description
This species is 13 cm long, including the cocked tail. It is similar in shape to the larger Spotted Flycatcher, but is relatively longer-tailed. The dark bill is relatively large and broad-based.
The adult has grey-brown upperparts, which become greyer as the plumage ages, and whitish underparts with brown-tinged flanks. Young birds have scaly brown upperparts, head and breast.
Geographical variation
Although usually treated as monotypic, Rasmussen and Anderton, in Birds of South Asia. TheRipley Guide argue that populations in the Indian subcontinent and the Andaman Islands should be regarded as a separate subspecies, poonensis, from the nominate race which occupies most of the species' range. They describe poonensis as paler and browner above, with a deeper bill, and mostly pale lower mandible, a more mottled throat, breast and flanks (in fresh plumage), less contrastingly white "spectacles" and throat, and perhaps a more rounded wing. [2]
This species is 13 cm long, including the cocked tail. It is similar in shape to the larger Spotted Flycatcher, but is relatively longer-tailed. The dark bill is relatively large and broad-based.
The adult has grey-brown upperparts, which become greyer as the plumage ages, and whitish underparts with brown-tinged flanks. Young birds have scaly brown upperparts, head and breast.
Geographical variation
Although usually treated as monotypic, Rasmussen and Anderton, in Birds of South Asia. TheRipley Guide argue that populations in the Indian subcontinent and the Andaman Islands should be regarded as a separate subspecies, poonensis, from the nominate race which occupies most of the species' range. They describe poonensis as paler and browner above, with a deeper bill, and mostly pale lower mandible, a more mottled throat, breast and flanks (in fresh plumage), less contrastingly white "spectacles" and throat, and perhaps a more rounded wing. [2]
Behaviour
Asian Brown Flycatcher is a common bird found in open woodland and cultivated areas. It nests in a hole in a tree, laying four eggs which are incubated by the female.
The male Asian Brown Flycatcher sings a simple melodic song during courtship.
This bird is parasitised by the chewing louse Philopterus davuricae.
Vagrancy
Asian Brown Flycatcher is an extremely rare vagrant to Western Europe. Records have come from Britain, Denmark, and Sweden, and in addition, there are unproven claims from Ireland, Faeroe, and Norway.[citation needed]
Britain
On 3rd October 2007 a first winter Brown Flycatcher was discovered at Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire which attracted hundreds of birdwatchers during its stay which lasted until dusk of the following day.[citation needed] This looks set to become the first accepted record. A previous record, on Fair Isle, on 1-2 July 1992 [3] was regarded by the BOURC as not definitely of wild origin.[citation needed] A bird had alaso been claimed on Holy Island, Northumberland on 9 Sept 1956, but the identification was not accepted with beyond doubt.[citation needed]
Asian Brown Flycatcher is a common bird found in open woodland and cultivated areas. It nests in a hole in a tree, laying four eggs which are incubated by the female.The male Asian Brown Flycatcher sings a simple melodic song during courtship.
This bird is parasitised by the chewing louse Philopterus davuricae.
Vagrancy
Asian Brown Flycatcher is an extremely rare vagrant to Western Europe. Records have come from Britain, Denmark, and Sweden, and in addition, there are unproven claims from Ireland, Faeroe, and Norway.[citation needed]
Britain
On 3rd October 2007 a first winter Brown Flycatcher was discovered at Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire which attracted hundreds of birdwatchers during its stay which lasted until dusk of the following day.[citation needed] This looks set to become the first accepted record. A previous record, on Fair Isle, on 1-2 July 1992 [3] was regarded by the BOURC as not definitely of wild origin.[citation needed] A bird had alaso been claimed on Holy Island, Northumberland on 9 Sept 1956, but the identification was not accepted with beyond doubt.[citation needed]
Saturday, October 11, 2008
Bristol underground scene
The Bristol underground scene is a term used to describe the culture surrounding trip hop, drum and bass and graffiti art that has existed in Bristol from the early 90s to the present.[2].
The city of Bristol in the UK has spawned various musicians and artists, and is typified by its urban culture. While the city is most associated with a group of artists who emerged during the 1990s, especially the 'Bristol Sound', the city maintains an active and diverse underground urban scene.
The city has been particularly associated with trip hop. Salon magazine has said that trip hop was spawned in "the bohemian, multi-ethnic city of Bristol, where restlessly inventive DJs had spent years assembling samples of various sounds that were floating around: groove-heavy acid jazz, dub reggae, neo-psychodelia, techno disco music, and the brainy art rap." [3]
The Bristol scene is characterised by a strong relationship between music and art, especially graffiti art. A founder member of the band Massive Attack, Robert Del Naja, was originally a graffiti artist, and local graffiti artist Banksy has also gone on to produce album covers and artworks.
The city of Bristol in the UK has spawned various musicians and artists, and is typified by its urban culture. While the city is most associated with a group of artists who emerged during the 1990s, especially the 'Bristol Sound', the city maintains an active and diverse underground urban scene.
The city has been particularly associated with trip hop. Salon magazine has said that trip hop was spawned in "the bohemian, multi-ethnic city of Bristol, where restlessly inventive DJs had spent years assembling samples of various sounds that were floating around: groove-heavy acid jazz, dub reggae, neo-psychodelia, techno disco music, and the brainy art rap." [3]
The Bristol scene is characterised by a strong relationship between music and art, especially graffiti art. A founder member of the band Massive Attack, Robert Del Naja, was originally a graffiti artist, and local graffiti artist Banksy has also gone on to produce album covers and artworks.
The 'Bristol Sound'
The Bristol sound was the name given to a number of bands from Bristol, England, in the 1990s. These bands spawned the musical genre trip-hop, though many of the bands shunned this name when other British and international bands imitated the style and preferred not to distinguish it from hip-hop.
The style was perhaps typified by the song "Unfinished Sympathy" which has frequently been described as one of the best songs of all time, according to polls produced by MTV2, NME, and various other magazines and reviewers. [4] A reviewer for the BBC has said that: "More than a decade after its release it remains one of the most moving pieces of dance music ever, able to soften hearts and excite minds just as keenly as a ballad by Bacharach or a melody by McCartney."
The Bristol sound as a whole was characterised by a slow, spaced-out hip hop sound that a number of artists in the early and mid 1990s made synonymous with the city. These artists can include the aforementioned original Bristolians Massive Attack, Portishead and Tricky and others such as Way Out West, Smith & Mighty, Up, Bustle and Out, Roni Size, and The Wild Bunch.
The Bristol sound as a whole was characterised by a slow, spaced-out hip hop sound that a number of artists in the early and mid 1990s made synonymous with the city. These artists can include the aforementioned original Bristolians Massive Attack, Portishead and Tricky and others such as Way Out West, Smith & Mighty, Up, Bustle and Out, Roni Size, and The Wild Bunch.
Urban graffiti
Many graffiti artists work in Bristol. One of the most notable is Banksy, who has also designed album covers for bands such as Blur. Banksy is considered by some 
to be a talented artist; he uses his original street art form to promote alternative aspects of politics from those promoted by the mainstream media. Some believe that his graffiti helps to provide a voice for those living in urban environments that could not otherwise express themselves, and that his work is also something which improves the aesthetic quality of urban surroundings; others disagree, asserting that his work is simple vandalism.
Banksy has produced work all over the world, including in Barcelona, New York, Australia, London, and the West Bank.
There has long been an interplay between the different music and art scenes. Robert Del Naja of the internationally successful band Massive Attack was initially a graffiti artist, "indeed, his first ever live gig was as a DJ accompanying artwork he had produced in a gallery in Bristol"[5].
to be a talented artist; he uses his original street art form to promote alternative aspects of politics from those promoted by the mainstream media. Some believe that his graffiti helps to provide a voice for those living in urban environments that could not otherwise express themselves, and that his work is also something which improves the aesthetic quality of urban surroundings; others disagree, asserting that his work is simple vandalism.Banksy has produced work all over the world, including in Barcelona, New York, Australia, London, and the West Bank.
There has long been an interplay between the different music and art scenes. Robert Del Naja of the internationally successful band Massive Attack was initially a graffiti artist, "indeed, his first ever live gig was as a DJ accompanying artwork he had produced in a gallery in Bristol"[5].
A work by Bristol artist Bansky.
History of the Bristol Underground scene
Bristol has long been a multicultural city. In the 1950s and 1960s there were waves of immigration that made Bristol one of the most racially diverse cities in the UK. This mix included greater access to new strands of music such as reggae. "In 1980, following a police raid on the popular Black and White Café, the St Pauls riots erupted, the first of the decade's civil disturbances."
"Around this time, the Bristol underground scene was steeped in punk and reggae influences, and soon embraced hip-hop - and with it the colourful New York-style lettering at the most creative end of the graffiti art spectrum."[6]
The 1990s was when the scene began to create work of international significance. 1991 saw the release of Massive Attack's Blue Lines, an album which has met international critical acclaim. Blue Lines was named the 21st greatest album of all time in a 'Music of the Millennium' poll conducted by HMV, Channel 4, The Guardian and Classic FM. Stuart Bailie of BBC Northern Ireland stated that "It was soul music. But it had bold, symphonic arrangements. It featured samples of the Mahavishnu Orchestra ... It had funky breaks and an emotional power that was hard to figure. It sounded anxious and lost. But there was a grandeur in the music also. People who came across the record became obsessed, spinning it endlessly." The release in 2006 of "Live With Me" is proof that the trip hop scene is still capable of producing great work.[citation needed]
Darkness
"Around this time, the Bristol underground scene was steeped in punk and reggae influences, and soon embraced hip-hop - and with it the colourful New York-style lettering at the most creative end of the graffiti art spectrum."[6]
The 1990s was when the scene began to create work of international significance. 1991 saw the release of Massive Attack's Blue Lines, an album which has met international critical acclaim. Blue Lines was named the 21st greatest album of all time in a 'Music of the Millennium' poll conducted by HMV, Channel 4, The Guardian and Classic FM. Stuart Bailie of BBC Northern Ireland stated that "It was soul music. But it had bold, symphonic arrangements. It featured samples of the Mahavishnu Orchestra ... It had funky breaks and an emotional power that was hard to figure. It sounded anxious and lost. But there was a grandeur in the music also. People who came across the record became obsessed, spinning it endlessly." The release in 2006 of "Live With Me" is proof that the trip hop scene is still capable of producing great work.[citation needed]
Darkness
The Bristol underground scene was characterised by a sparseness and darkness. Bands like Portishead and Massive Attack used sparse sounds - a simple bass line, a vocal and a few other effects, and usually very melancholy lyrics. Banksy also tends to use very few colours, concentrating on blacks and whites and sharp outlines, and often looking at controversial topics such as war.
Separately to this, some writers have talked of an undercurrent of darkness within the City due to its history.[7]
Racial tensions within the City
An article in 2008 in The Telegraph stated that: "Racial matters have always carried a historical resonance in Bristol, a city made affluent on the profits of tobacco and slave-trading. Street names such as Blackboy Hill and Whiteladies Road remain as reminders."
"It's a past that we feel equivocal about", says Steve Wright. "It's a double-edged thing. There are the beautiful Georgian terraces that we love, but they were built on the profits of slavery. It's our shady past, and Bristolians are a bit self-effacing, a bit ashamed of it and are quite keen to layer new associations on top of it. There's always been a defiant, subversive streak in Bristol, and Banksy's work is very much in that tradition."[8]
There has often been a slight undercurrent of tension both in the politics and creatively with artists and musicians in the merger of black and white culture. During the 1950s the Bristol evening post carried what many today would consider openly racist articles, warning of the dangers of black bus drivers.
Creative tensions within bands
Some of this tension spilled over into some of the artists creative work. Massive Attack for example were wrought with creative tensions over their 1998 album Mezzanine, which resulted in one of the three core members leaving. Robert Del Naja has described the dark atmosphere within the group: "There was always this tension between control and collaboration. Always... We were just trying to get the job finished... Everything became thinner and smaller. All that warmth being spun into a tiny little thread, then that thread just being cut."[9]
Artistic use of darkness
The music and art of the Bristol underground scene has often used dark imagery and lyrics. Arguably Massive Attack's best song, Unfinished Sympathy talks of a lover's unhappiness, and the mood is soulful, downbeat and emotional. [10]
Banksy within his pictures has used images of civilian casualties of war, and his work often talks of frustration and anger.[11]
Arguably Portishead's most successful song Glory Box includes the lyrics "Give me a reason to love you" and speaks of a lover's unhappiness with her current situation[12]. Another successful song "All Mine" speaks of forcing a lover to be unable to escape making them "tethered and tied" until "the day they die". [13] Suggestions of the songs meaning have included the idea that it is either "scary or incredibly romantic. It can be about the initial obsession you get in fresh relationships."[14]
Massive Attack's most recent single Live With Me features a vocal performance by a deep soul sin
ger and again includes soulful lyrics such as "Nothing's right, if you ain't here"[15]. The video includes images of a young woman drinking herself into a stupor, on her own, in a dark city. The video finishes with a shot of her tumbling over and over down a staircase until she is out of shot.[16] One review of the video described it as follows: "It's uncomfortable viewing, but I found it really haunting. It features a young (mid twenties) professional-looking woman drinking herself into oblivion on her own in her flat. I can’t really put my finger on what it is about it that I find so arresting, but I thought it was an incredibly powerful four minute film."[17]
Politics
By definition the underground scene tends to be slightly apart from the mainstream and this is reflected in the politics of some of the artists and musicians associated with it. Robert Del Naja, one of the most influential artists and musicians of this scene has openly declared his opposition to the Iraq war for example. [18] Del Naja and Banksy have both submitted art works to the War Paint exhibition which showcases anti war art work.
Bristol Indymedia
Bristol has a flourishing independent media scene. One of the more interesting aspects of this is the Bristol Indymedia web site [1]. Bristol Indymedia (like the wider Indymedia network), provides a mix of news and articles that often tend towards a left-wing, progressive or anarchistic perspective. Bristol Indymedia volunteers have also produced films[2] and run community media days[3] (often at the Cube Microplex).
On the 27 June 2005 the Bristol Indymedia server was temporarily taken off line by the police due to a vandal using it to boast of his activities and inciting others to do likewise. (See the Indymedia entry for more on controversies surrounding Indymedia's open newswire policy, or The Register's coverage for more on the police raid.) The seizure of the server was carried out under a search warrant (police and criminal evidence act 1984, ss.8 and 15).[4] The police also arrested of a Bristol Indymedia volunteer for the common law offence of incitement to criminal damage. The raid removed a computer that also hosted a number of other sites including Euskalinfo (a Basque news service) and Wildfire, the blog of a prominent Bristol peace activist Jo Wilding. Following the seizure the Bristol Indymedia collective released a statement saying, "We are outraged at the actions of the police. They have completely disabled the entire Bristol Indymedia news service...This situation has serious implications for anyone providing a news service on the Internet."[5] On October 26, 2005 the police had returned the seized equipment.[6] By January 2006 the police had not charged the arrested volunteer with the offence arrested for and had decided that no further action is to be taken.[7] During the server seizure many local groups and individuals responded warmly to Bristol Indymedia's plight with solidarity and donations.[8]
Other Bristol Independent Media
Bristol also has a well-established tradition of print media, now best exemplified by The Bristolian and Bristle magazine.
The Bristolian news sheet achieved a regular distribution of several thousand, pulling no punches with its satirical exposés of council and corporate corruption. The Bristolian, 'Smiter of the High and Mighty', even spawned a radical independent political party that polled an impressive 15% in Easton ward in 2003. In October 2005 it came runner up for the national Paul Foot Award for investigative journalism [9]
The anarchist-oriented Bristle, ‘fighting talk for Bristol and the South-West’, was started in 1997 and celebrated its twentieth issue in 2005. Its pages especially feature subvertising and other urban street art to complement news, views and comments on the local activist scene as well as tackling issues such as drugs, mental health and housing.[10]
1970s women's liberation paper Enough, was succeeded in the 1990s by the environmental and pagan Greenleaf (edited by the late George Firsoff), West Country Activist, Kebelian Voice, Planet Easton, the anarcho-feminist Bellow and present-day punk fanzine Everlong, all of which have been published in Bristol.
Urban radio projects such as the 1980s pirate, Savage Yet Tender and Dialect Radio (ceased October 2004)[citation needed] have proved to be more short-lived.
Urban culture
Urban culture is the culture of cities. Cities all over the world, past and present, have behaviors and cultural elements that separate them from otherwise comparable rural areas.
In the US and UK, "urban" is often used as a euphemism to describe hip hop culture or subsets of black culture; being these defined groups as a type of urban tribe. Hence names for cultural artifacts like urban music could be seen as a new term for "Race music". It can also refer to the greater availability of cultural resources (such as art, theatre, events, etc) as compared to suburban or rural areas.
In the US and UK, "urban" is often used as a euphemism to describe hip hop culture or subsets of black culture; being these defined groups as a type of urban tribe. Hence names for cultural artifacts like urban music could be seen as a new term for "Race music". It can also refer to the greater availability of cultural resources (such as art, theatre, events, etc) as compared to suburban or rural areas.
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